Agricultural waste management
M. Safari; M. A. Rostami
Abstract
IntroductionIn conventional combine harvesters, wheat chaff is typically removed from the end of the machine and deposited on the field surface. Depending on the wheat cultivar, cultivation method, and growing conditions, the amount of chaff produced can range from 0.8 to 1.5 times the amount of grain ...
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IntroductionIn conventional combine harvesters, wheat chaff is typically removed from the end of the machine and deposited on the field surface. Depending on the wheat cultivar, cultivation method, and growing conditions, the amount of chaff produced can range from 0.8 to 1.5 times the amount of grain harvested per hectare (Tavakoli, 2012). On average, this translates to an annual production of approximately 14 million tons of chaff, which is valued at around $240000000 based on regional prices in 2018-2019 ($1000 per kilogram). If collected, these chaff residues could be used as animal feed for livestock. Additionally, the long stems protruding from the back of conventional combine harvesters can interfere with subsequent cultivation efforts. Chaff combine harvesters have a similar structure to conventional machines, but feature a modified end that includes a tank and blower for collecting and depositing crushed chaff. Apart from the threshing unit, all other components of the harvester remain unchanged.Materials and MethodsThis study was conducted in 2019 in dryland wheat fields to determine the performance of Chaff combine harvesters in Kurdistan province. The study used 15 combine harvesters, including John Deere models equipped with chaff threshers from Shiraz, Bookan, and Hamedan, as well as the Hamedan Barzegar specific chaff collector combine. These combines were evaluated and compared based on natural losses, head and chaff storage losses, field capacity, purity percentage, and yield in field conditions in Kurdistan province. The total number of combines evaluated was 15, using a completely randomized design. Among these, 33% belonged to Shiraz company (5 samples), 33% to Bookan (5 samples), 20% to Hamedan (3 samples), and 14% to Hamedan Barzegar (2 samples). Sampling included measurement of natural losses, header losses, threshing tank losses (losses of the threshing unit, separating unit, and cleaning unit), and quality losses (broken grains and impurities) in the combine tank.Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the average yield, natural loss, and combine loss were 1,698.14 kg.ha-1, 2.39%, and 4.92%, respectively. In terms of the loss rates in different parts of the combine, 43.49% was related to the chaff storage of the combine, and 56.50% was related to the combine head.The natural loss rate in this province was 2.39%. The total combine loss was 5.18%, with 40.44% of that related to chaff storage and the rest related to the combine head. The results also showed a significant difference between the treatments in terms of field capacity, chaff storage loss, and purity percentage at a probability level of 5%.The total loss of the Hamedan Barzegar combine was 6.67%, which was higher than the other combines. The chaff storage loss of the Shiraz, Bookan, Hamedan, and Hamedan Barzegar combines were 0.87%, 2.64%, 0.78%, and 4.28%, respectively, showing a significant difference at a 5% level. There was also a significant difference between the treatments in terms of total grain loss.Based on these results, it is recommended to use the Hamedan, Bookan, Shiraz, and Hamedan Barzegar combines, with total losses of 4.33%, 4.33%, 4.52%, and 6.56%, respectively.ConclusionThe average purity of harvested grains was 96.62%, and there was no significant difference between the combine harvesters in this regard.There was a significant difference between the combines in terms of field capacity at a probability level of 5%. The field capacity of the Bookan, Hamedan Barzegar, Hamedan, and Shiraz combine harvesters were 0.83, 0.87, 0.83, and 0.73 hectares per hour, respectively.In Kurdistan province, the average grain combine loss in dryland wheat harvesting with chaff combine harvesters was 4.92%, which is higher than in other provinces.The loss in the chaff tank of the Shiraz, Bookan, Hamedan, and Hamedan Barzegar combine harvesters was 0.87%, 2.64%, 0.78%, and 4.28%, respectively. Regardless of head losses, the loss in the Hamedan combine was less than other combine harvesters.The total losses of the Hamedan Barzegar, Bookan, Shiraz, and Hamedan combine harvesters were 6.56%, 4.32%, 4.52%, and 4.30%, respectively, with the Hamedan Barzegar and Hamedan combine harvesters having the highest and lowest losses, respectively.Based on the results obtained from this study, using the Hamedan combine is recommended in the dryland conditions of Kurdistan due to its low losses, high purity, and field capacity.AcknowledgementThanks to the Agricultural Jihad Organization of Kurdistan Province, specifically the deputy of the Plant Production and Mechanized Technologies Department, for their assistance and cooperation in the implementation of the project.
Precision Farming
H. Mohamadi-Monavar; S. Zibazadeh
Abstract
IntroductionRemote sensing methods for mapping farms and crops have been widely used in the last three decades. This method is applied to identify irrigated areas around the world (Alipour et al., 2014), although most of these studies are in areas with semi-arid climates and low rainfall or lack of rainfall ...
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IntroductionRemote sensing methods for mapping farms and crops have been widely used in the last three decades. This method is applied to identify irrigated areas around the world (Alipour et al., 2014), although most of these studies are in areas with semi-arid climates and low rainfall or lack of rainfall which has a significant effect on the spectral characteristics of plants. In this study, Landsat 8 and MODIS satellite images were used to identify and separate two irrigated and rain-fed wheat farms in Hamadan province. Two algorithms of support vector machine (SVM) and minimum distance (MD) were used simultaneously to classify irrigated and rain-fed farms. In the next step, the area under cultivation of rain-fed and irrigated wheat was predicted in the whole cultivated area of Hamadan province. Finally, the cultivation area of rain-fed and irrigated crops was calculated in the province using Sentinel 3 satellite images based on the random forest algorithm in 2016.Materials and MethodsThe study area is Hamedan province, which is located between 59◦ 33′ and 49◦ 35′ north latitude and also from 34◦ 47′ to 34◦ 49′ east longitude of the Greenwich meridian. A 50-hectare rain-fed wheat farm in Amzajerd was used as a sample to extract the properties of rain-fed wheat. Also, irrigated indices were extracted from a 100-hectare irrigated wheat farm located in Kaboudrahang. Satellite images were applied to separate irrigated and rain-fed wheat in Hamadan province. NDVI, EVI and NDWI indices were extracted from 16-day images of Landsat, MODIS, and Sentinel 3 sensors in the five-year period (2015-2019). Google Earth Engine (GEE) system was the environment for performing image processing calculations and extracting indices and maps.Results and DiscussionThe NDVI and EVI of irrigated and rain-fed wheat farms were calculated in 2015-2019. A small peak was observed in the rain-fed and irrigated NDVI trend in November due to the early germination of wheat leaves in winter, and the larger peak in May and June showed the maximum greenness of irrigated and rain-fed wheat, respectively. The ascending or descending trend of NDVI / EVI had no constant slope. This can be due to changes in meteorological parameters, which sometimes cause a sudden increase or decrease in the values of these indices. Despite the non-linearity of the NDVI / EVI trend over time, the maximum greenness was recorded just a month before the wheat harvest, which was seen in the third decade of May to the first decade of June. One of the cases is the sharp drop of NDVI / EVI after its final peak, which was definitely due to yellowing wheat and harvesting. Since the distinction between rain-fed and irrigated crops was difficult only based on NDVI, NDWI was also used to determine the water content of wheat so that irrigated wheat could be identified. However, the difference between rain-fed and irrigated wheat in terms of NDWI spectral density was insignificant; the maximum and minimum occurrence times of NDWI and NDVI of rain-fed and irrigated wheat were chosen for their separation. In order to map the cultivation area, in addition to the MODIS sensor, Sentinel 3 was used due to its ability to detect chlorophyll accurately. Due to the fact that the imaging of the Sentinel 3 satellite started since 2016, the map of rain-fed and irrigated cultivation as well as the cultivation area and their separation was done based on the random forest algorithm in 2016.ConclusionThe results of this study showed that the appropriate method for distinguishing between rain-fed and irrigated wheat is the simultaneous use of several indices. Also, the greatest difference is in the maximum greenness, which happened almost one month before harvest. MD and SVM classification algorithms could distinguish irrigated and rain-fed wheat from other crops with 90% and 80% accuracy, respectively. Distinguished maps of irrigated and rain-fed crops based on the random forest algorithm were obtained using Sentinel 3 satellite imagery which can show the fertility of agricultural lands in the province.
The relationship between machine and soil
S. M. Seyedan; A. Heidari
Abstract
IntroductionSoil protection against water and wind erosion is of great importance. Since most soils of arid and semi-arid regions of Iran are poor in organic matter and continuous use of conventional tillage (moldboard plow) has increased the severity of soil organic matter depletion and degradation ...
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IntroductionSoil protection against water and wind erosion is of great importance. Since most soils of arid and semi-arid regions of Iran are poor in organic matter and continuous use of conventional tillage (moldboard plow) has increased the severity of soil organic matter depletion and degradation of soil structure. Therefore replacing conventional tillage with conservation tillage (reduced tillage and no tillage) is needed to improve soil structure and increase soil organic matter. Due to the increasing population growth and the limitation of arable land, it is necessary to remove the fallow year in dryland. Legumes are crops that can be in rotation with wheat. Materials and MethodsThis study was conducted to evaluate the effect of crop rotation and different tillage systems on rain-fed wheat farming in Kaboudarahang Township during 2012-2014. The experiment was conducted as split-plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications. In this study, different crop rotations including fallow-wheat rotation, and chickpea-wheat rotation as main plots and different tillage systems including conventional tillage (moldboard plow + power harrow), conservation tillage (chisel plow equipped with roller), conservation tillage (sweep plow equipped with roller) and direct drilling were investigated as subplots.In the economic evaluation of this project, the economic impacts of the treatments were analyzed using the partial budgeting method and the cost-benefit ratio. For this purpose, the difference between treatments income and cost compared with control treatment has been calculated and compared. The differences in the benefits of the treatments are due to the different yields of wheat. Results and DiscussionResults showed:1- The highest wheat yield in the first and second years of the study was 605.3 and 2135.1 kg ha-1, respectively in rotation of fallow wheat.2- In the first year, the highest wheat yield (690.7 kg ha-1) was related to direct planting (no tillage), but in the second year, the highest yield (2268.6 kg ha-1) was related to conservation tillage (sweep blades + roller).3- In the first and second year, the highest value of treatment was related to direct planting and conservation tillage (sweep tiller + roller), respectively.4- In the chickpea-wheat rotation, the highest net income in the first and second year was related to direct planting and conservation tillage (sweep + roller), respectively. Thebenefit-cost ratio in the conservation tillage (sweep + roller) (second year) and direct drilling (first year) methods shows that for each rial of expenses, 5.7 and 2.8 rials can be earned respectively. Therefore, economically, these tillage treatments are superior to the control treatment (conventional cultivation).5- In the wheat rotation, the highest net income in the first and second year was related to direct planting and conservation tillage (sweep + roller), respectively. The benefit-cost ratio in the conservation tillage (sweep + roller) (second year) and direct drilling (first year) methods shows that for each rial of expenses, 4.2 and 1.3 rials can be earned respectively. Therefore, it is economically justified and these tillage treatments are superior to the control treatment (conventional tillage).ConclusionThe results of this study showed that in the first and second years, economically the direct method and the conservation tillage treatment (sweep blades + roller) were superior to the conventional method, respectively. Therefore, conservation tillage methods can be replaced by the conventional method (plowing with moldboard plow) in dryland farming. Also, in dry years, direct cultivation (no tillage) is a good and economical method.
A. Vahedi; S. Zarifneshat
Abstract
Introduction Agriculture is an energy conversion process. In this process, solar energy, fossil fuel, and electricity are converted mainly into food and fiber. In the agricultural section, the trend of energy consumption increases rapidly every year. Constraints on agricultural land, population ...
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Introduction Agriculture is an energy conversion process. In this process, solar energy, fossil fuel, and electricity are converted mainly into food and fiber. In the agricultural section, the trend of energy consumption increases rapidly every year. Constraints on agricultural land, population growth, changes in infrastructure, and a trend towards high living standards have contributed to increase energy use in the agricultural sector. Fuel, electricity, machinery, seeds, chemical fertilizers, and chemical pesticides have a significant share in supplying energy sources. Effective use of energy in agriculture reduces environmental problems and prevents the destruction of natural resources and develops sustainable agriculture as an economic production system. Wheat is the most strategic crop in Iran that more than 50.39% of arable land belongs to wheat. Materials and Methods The current study has been done with the objects of evaluation of inputs and crop yield, input and output energy, and energy indices for irrigated wheat for seven provinces such as Alborz, Isfahan, Ardebil, Khorasan-e Razavi, Khuzestan, Golestan, and Hamadan. For this purpose, the required information gathered via study of publications, face to face interview with experts and leading farmers, and questionnaire completion by the irrigated wheat farmers in different cities of each understudy province. Then, with the help of equivalent energy equations, input and output energy and energy indices were calculated. In this research, simple random sampling method was used.Results and DiscussionAccording to the results, total input energies of Alborz, Isfahan, Ardebil, Khorasan-e Razavi, Khuzestan, Golestan, and Hamadan provinces were calculated with 45458.84, 92714.8, 38755.34, 104701, 50971.2, 26198, and 49362. 64 MJ ha-1 respectively, while the output energy for those provinces were 162169.28, 131958.8, 77381.39, 122297, 141901.2, 134106, and 125511.69 MJ ha-1, respectively. The maximum share of energy input for Alborz, Ardebil, Khuzestan, Golestan, and Hamadan provinces were regarding to chemical fertilizers with amounts of 43.06, 43.16, 58.33, 38.05, and 47.57 percent, respectively, while irrigation energy requirement had maximum share in Isfahan and Khorasan-e Razavi with 62.36 and 57.17 percent, respectively. The minimum share of energy input for Alborz, Isfahan, Ardebil, Khorasan-e Razavi, and Golestan provinces was calculated for labor energy requirement with 0.39, 0.29, 0.79, 0.18, and 0.26 percent, respectively, while in Khuzestan and Hamadan, chemicals consumed the lowest energy with 0.55 and 0.89 percent, respectively. Share of direct energies for all understudy provinces were 44.61, 72.13, 41.22, 67.48, 30.75, 39.44, and 39.91 percent, share of indirect energies were 55.39, 27.87, 58.78, 32.52, 69.25, 60.56, and 60.09 percent, share of renewable energies were 27.99, 65.91, 32.35, 60.57, 19.26, 34.92, and 35.16 percent, and share of nonrenewable energies were 72.01, 34.09, 67.65, 39.43, 80.74, 65.08, and 64.84 percent, respectively. Energy ratio for Alborz, Isfahan, Ardebil, Khorasan-e Razavi, Khuzestan, Golestan, and Hamadan provinces were 3.57, 1.42, 3.48, 1.17, 2.78, 5.12, and 2.54, respectively, and energy productivities were 0.26, 0.11, 0.26, 0.08, 0.21, 0.38, and 0.18 kg MJ-1, respectively. Average input energy, output energy, energy ratio, energy productivity, and net energy gain for all provinces were 58308.83 MJ ha-1, 136092.15 MJ ha-1, 2.87, 0.212 kg MJ-1 and 77783. 31 MJ ha-1, respectively. Total input energy cost for irrigated wheat production was 57.966 ×106 Rial ha-1. The Energy intensiveness, Energy intensiveness value, Energy intensity cost, and Energy ratio cost were found as 1.299 MJ (103 Rial)-1, 0.641 MJ (103 Rial)-1, 10853.05 Rial kg-1, and 1.21, respectively.Conclusion In order to reduce the share of indirect energy and non-renewable energy, organic fertilizers should be replaced by chemical fertilizers and plant residues in the field. Minimum tillage should also be used in land preparation operations to reduce fuel consumption, maintain organic matter and soil moisture and reduce soil erosion. To compensate for some of the elements taken from the soil by the plant and the increase of organic matter and fertility of the soil, it is recommended to return part of the plant residues to the soil. The use of combined machines that can perform several simultaneous operations and minimizing and protecting soil tillage to reduce fossil fuel consumption through minimum use of machinery should be investigated as a national necessity.
S. Zarei; M. Kasraei; M. A. Nematollahi
Abstract
Introduction Cereals as one of the most important sources of food plants could provide more than 70% of the food for the human population. Passing of water from the magnetic field is among approachable methods in order to reduce the total amount of water used for irrigation. Moreover, magnetized water ...
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Introduction Cereals as one of the most important sources of food plants could provide more than 70% of the food for the human population. Passing of water from the magnetic field is among approachable methods in order to reduce the total amount of water used for irrigation. Moreover, magnetized water is a new concept for increasing the water efficiency. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate the effects of the magnetized water on some of features containing dry weight, germination velocity and percentage, length and weight vigor indices of five common wheat cultivars including Roshan, Sardari, Shiraz, Falat and Yavarus, to introduce the best cultivar considering the growth and germination indices as well as water and energy efficiency. Materials and Methods To perform this experiment, a device with a magnetic field of 500 millitesla was constructed to accommodate both the water path and the placement of seeds in the magnetic field. To perform the experiments, 10 seeds in 4-kg vases and 25 seeds in each Petri dish were cultivated in the greenhouse and laboratory, respectively. The experiments were carried out in the form of completely randomized factorial design. The factors are considered as the duration time of keeping the water in the magnetic field (three levels of 30, 60 and 120 minutes), the intensity of the magnetic field (three levels of 100, 150, and 200 millitesla), and five wheat cultivars (Roshan, Sardari, Shiraz, Falat and Yavarus) in three replications. Experiments related to the both of rate and percent of germination and for dry weight were performed at room temperature in the laboratory and greenhouse under controlled conditions, respectively. The measured data were analyzed using SAS software. The F test was used to determine the significant level of treatments. The comparison of the means was evaluated using LSD test. Results and Discussion The obtained results, showed that the effect of magnetic water on all growth and germination indices compared to control samples was significant. Under the 150 millitesla and 120 minutes treatment, the Yavarus, Roshan and Sardari cultivar had maximum dry weight, respectively. The Roshan cultivar had the maximum germination velocity at 100 and 150 millitesla and duration time of 30 minutes. Moreover, the maximum germination percentage was found in the Roshan cultivar, which did not have a significant difference with Yavarus cultivar. The Roshan cultivar in 200 millitesla field and duration time of 60 minutes, had the maximum percentage of length vigor index, which showed a significant difference with other averages. In general, Roshan and Sardari cultivars had more length vigor index than other cultivars. Sardari cultivar had maximum percentage of weight vigor index under 200 millitesla and 120 minutes duration time, which had no significant difference with the percentage of weight vigor index at the same field level and with duration time of 60 minutes. Conclusion According to the obtained results to achieve the maximum value of dry weight, it is better to use the Yavarus cultivar. It is recommended to use the Roshan cultivar with the lower level of magnetic field and duration time to attain the maximum value of the germination velocity and percentage. To get the maximum value of the length vigor index and the weight vigor index the Roshan and Sardari cultivars, and the Sardari cultivar with field of 200 milli Tesla and lower duration time are preferred.
R. Karmulla Chaab; S. H. Karparvarfard; M. Edalat; H. Rahmanian- Koushkaki
Abstract
Introduction One of the problems which considered in recent years for grain harvesting is loss of wheat during production until consumption and tenders the offers for prevention of its especially in harvesting times by combine harvesting machine. Grain harvesting combines are good examples of an operation ...
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Introduction One of the problems which considered in recent years for grain harvesting is loss of wheat during production until consumption and tenders the offers for prevention of its especially in harvesting times by combine harvesting machine. Grain harvesting combines are good examples of an operation where a compromise must be made. One would expect increased costs because of natural loss before harvesting, because of cutter bar loss, because of threshing loss, because of greater losses over the sieve and because of the reduced forward speed necessary to permit the through put material to feed passed the cylinder. The ability to recognize and evaluate compromise solutions and be able to predict the loosed grain is a valuable trait of the harvesting machine manager. By understanding the detailed operation of machines, be able to check their performance, and then arrive at adjustments or operating producers which produce the greatest economic return. Voicu et al. (2007) predicted the grain loss in cleaning part of the combine harvester by using the laboratory simulator based on dimensional analysis method. The obtained model was capable to predict the grain loss perfectly. Soleimani and Kasraei (2012) designed and developed a header simulator to optimize the combine header in rapeseed harvesting. Parameters of interest were: forward speed, cutter bar speed and reel index. The results showed that all the factors were significant in 5% probability. Also in the case of forward speed was 2 km h-1, cutter bar speed was 1400 rpm and reel index was 1.5, the grain loss had minimum quantity. The main purpose of this research was to develop an equation for predicting grain loss in combine header simulator. Modeling of the header grain loss was conducted using dimensional analysis approach. Effective factors on grain loss in combine header unit were: forward speed, reel speed and cutter bar height. Materials and Methods For studying the effective parameters on head loss in grain combine harvester, a header simulator with the following components was built in Biosystems Engineering Department of Shiraz University. Reel unit The reel size was 120 cm length and 100 cm diameter. This reel was removed from an old combine header and installed on a fixed bed. For changing the rotational speed of the reel, an electrical inverter (N50-007SF, Korea) was used. Cutter bar unit The cutter bar length was 120 cm. Knifes were installed on this section. Reciprocating motion was transmitted to the cutter bar through a slider crank attached to a variable speed electric motor (1.5kw, 1400 rpm, Poland). The motor was fixed on the bed. Feeder unit This section was consisted of a rail and a virtual ground. This ground was a tray that the wheat stems were staying on it manually. The rail was the path of virtual ground. Treatments consisted of three levels of rotational speed of reel (21, 25 and 30 rpm), three levels of forward speed of virtual ground (2, 3 and 4 km h-1), three levels of cutter bar height (15, 25 and 35 cm) and three replications. In other words, 81 tests were done. The basis of choosing levels of treatments was combine harvester manuals and driver’s experiences. The dependent variable (H.L) was calculated as below: (1) Where L.G is the mass of loss grains and H.G is the mass of harvested grains. Results and Discussion Generally results of ANOVA test showed that the cutter bar height, rotational speed of reel and forward speed had significant effect on head loss. Also interaction of rotational speed and forward speed, cutter bar height and forward speed had significant effect on head loss. These findings were based on Soleimani and Kasraei (2012) research. Therefore, the cutter bar height, rotational speed of reel and forward speed were three independent parameters on head loss as a dependent parameter. By results of laboratory data, the equation for predicting grain loss by header simulator was obtained. Conclusion The statistical results of F- test in 5% probability showed that there were no significant difference between measured and predicted amounts for laboratory data.
Design and Construction
I. Eskandari; N. Sartipi
Abstract
IntroductionResearchers frequently include multiple cultivars and fertility levels in field experiments. Therefore, the experiments sowing operation must represent a considerable saving in time and labor, compared to hand sowing. Greater flexibility in experimental design and setup could be achieved ...
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IntroductionResearchers frequently include multiple cultivars and fertility levels in field experiments. Therefore, the experiments sowing operation must represent a considerable saving in time and labor, compared to hand sowing. Greater flexibility in experimental design and setup could be achieved by equipment that enables quick changes in the cultivar and fertilizer rates from one plot to the next. A satisfactory seed drill must distribute a given quantity of seed evenly over a predetermined length of coulter row, the coulters must be spaced at exact intervals and depth of sowing must be uniform. In a self-propelled type of plot seeder, no coulter should run in a wheel track as the compaction of the soil can cause observable differences in vigor between plants in such a row and those in un-compacted rows. The machine should sow in succession from a try in which a series of seed pocket separated clearly and must be put into distributer funnel by an assistant operator. The length of gap being varied according to the nature and purpose of the plot.The objectives of this experiment were 1- to design and construct a local self-propelled plot seeder and 2- To compare it with the imported (Wintersteiger) plot seeder in cereal breeding programs.Materials and MethodsA small-plot seeder was designed and constructed to meet this objective. The unit consists of the following basic components: a toolbar for pulling a set of six blade coulter, an air compressor for lifting and putting down the openers and metering transmission drive wheel, an operators chair and work rack, one belt seed distribution. A cone-celled and rotor seed distributor is used for seed distribution to the openers. The cone system is connected to the gearbox and allows for great flexibility in changing cultivars, crop species, and plot length. This is driven by the separate drive wheel. The cone-celled distributor sows all the seed of the sample in making one complete turn. The spinner can be equipped with a 4 or 6 outlet delivery head, depending on row spacing. The planter is fitted with hoe openers. Alternatively, spear-point openers have sometimes been used under conventional tillage systems. Seeding depth control was achieved by an adjustment screw handle. The plot seeder is being moved by a 9.6 kW engine, and has been successfully used in applications. Field experiment established by using 4 plot length (2, 3, 4 and 6) with 4 replication by the constructed plot seeder and imported plot seeder. Crop measurements were planted height, spike m-2, seeds/spike, Thousand kernel weight, Biological and grain yield, harvest index and drill measurements were seeding depth, uniformity of row spacing in action, seed counter performance, power requirement, slippage evenly of rows after planting.Results and DiscussionResults showed that there were significant differences between the plant emergences. The emergencies were higher in plots, which planted by the new plot seeder. The differences between seed distribution of openers were insignificant, but the variances of new plot seeder and imported plot seeder were 0.267 and 1.05 respectively. Mean planting depth of plots planted by the Wintersteiger plot seeder was 0.8 cm shallower than the adjusted planting depth while mean planting depth in plots planted by constructing machine had only 0.01 cm variation.Results of variance analysis revealed that effect of treatments on wheat grain yield and yield components was significant. So that, highest grain yield (4216 kgha-1), biological yield (8704 kgha-1), number of spikes per square meter (649spike), obtained from a plot which planted by constructed plot seeder. Increasing yield of treatments which planted by constructed plot seeder might be because of increasing the number of spikes per square meter in those treatments. The mean of spike per square meter in plots of new planter was 691 spikes which were116 spike more than plots planted by imported plot seeder.ConclusionsThe constructed plot seeder had up to 18500$ cost reduction. The seeder was able to distribute the different type of seed to the seed tubes uniformly in laboratory tests, nevertheless it is necessary to test the constructed plot seeder in field condition by using different seed type and conducting new research project. Advantages of this planter include less variation of seed fall down in different coulters, perfect planting depth control, separate wheel for adjusting planting length, minimize the slippage of planter driven wheel and proper utility in different field condition. According to effects on crop parameters the constructed plot seeder had relative priority to imported one. In addition easily accessories supply and cheaper prime cost are profit of the designed and constructed plot seeder.
R. Rahimzadeh; Y. Ajabshirchi; Sh. Abdollahpour; A. Sharifi Malvajerdi; N. Sartipi; A. Mohammadi
Abstract
Introduction
Direct planting becomes more common in the recent years, because it conserves soil and water as well as it saves energy and time. However, this technology needs special implements such as seed planter. Given that direct planting is practiced in undisturbed lands, so it was needed to design ...
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Introduction
Direct planting becomes more common in the recent years, because it conserves soil and water as well as it saves energy and time. However, this technology needs special implements such as seed planter. Given that direct planting is practiced in undisturbed lands, so it was needed to design a special furrow opener. In order to obtain a suitable furrow opener this experiment was conducted in rain-fed Agricultural Research Institute in Maragheh.
Materials and Methods
Most of seed planters that are used for cultivation in rain fed conditions are equipped by hoe-type furrow opener. Hoe-type furrow openers have good penetration in hard and dry soils. However, they do not have the ability for direct planting. Hoe-type furrow opener was chosen as a model. Then by changing the geometric form of the depth to width ratio (d/w), the two openers were designed. In the first design, which was called O1 two wings and a narrow blade acting as a coulter were added in front of the hoe-type furrow opener. In the second design, which was called O2, in addition to the O1 modification, furrow opener width was decreased and a disk blade was added for seed sowing (Fig. 1).
The performance of O1 and O2 openers were compared with the conventional hoe-type furrow opener (check) in soil bin and in field conditions. At three different forward speeds (1, 1.5 and 2 m.s-1) with 3 replications, the effects of the openers designs of vertical and horizontal soil forces were evaluated in soil-bin conditions. In order to evaluate the performance of the furrow opener in field conditions, an experiment was conducted using a split plot design based on RCBD at 4 replications. Furrow openers formed the main plots and forward speeds formed the sub plots. Each plot size was 22 meters long in two rows for each treatment. After germination of wheat crop, the numbers of seedlings in two rows were counted (along a one meter). After crop maturity, all plots were harvested by hand and grain and biological yield was measured. ANOVA test, uniformity test and mean comparison were conducted by using Genstat software.
Results and Discussion
The soil bin test results showed that opener design and forward speed both have significant influences on the horizontal force (p<0.01). Horizontal force was increased with increasing of forward speeds. The same result was reported by Wheeler and Godwin, 1996 and Astafford, 1979. The lowest horizontal force (average 1.66 kN) occurred at 1 m.s-1 and the highest (average 1.94 kN) occurred at 2 m.s-1 forward speeds. Horizontal force increased in O2 (2.8%) and decreased in O1 (3.4%) compared with the control (average 1.77 kN). Moreover, openers had significant influence on the vertical force (p<0.01). Vertical force values were negative in O1 (average -0.05 kN) and O2 (average -0.07 kN) in comparison with positive value in the control (average +0.01 kN). The effect of forward speed on vertical force was not statistically significant. The field results showed that there were significant differences among the openers in the numbers of seedling, grain and biological yield (p<0.01). The O2 opener (with the average of 48 seedlings per one meter row) had 33% and 24% more seedlings in comparison with O1 and check furrow openers, respectively. Probably, using dick bald in O2 design leads to increased seed germination. Increasing of seed germination by using disk furrow opener as an advantage is reported by Kushwaha and Foster, 1993. The O2 furrow opener would also increase grain yield about 36% compared with both O1 and check furrow openers.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that the newly designed furrow opener (O2) could improve the energy efficiency with increasing crop yield. Hence, O2 furrow opener could be recommended for direct planting in rain-fed farming.
E. Askari Asli–Ardeh; M. Azad Takchi; A. Hakimi
Abstract
Introduction: In many rural areas, manual threshers are still in use because of the small farming units. However, research sections, have been used manual threshers particularly in breeding unites in many cases due to the low volume of crop. Manual threshers for the first time were manufactured by Iran ...
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Introduction: In many rural areas, manual threshers are still in use because of the small farming units. However, research sections, have been used manual threshers particularly in breeding unites in many cases due to the low volume of crop. Manual threshers for the first time were manufactured by Iran Ashtad Cooperative in two models (T25 and T30) and then they were made available to the farmers across the country. The threshers due to having wire loop drum had a good performance for threshing rice crop. According to the mentioned application, manual threshers expected to have been capable of threshing wheat crop. A type of this thresher (modelT30) was available in University of Mohaghegh Ardabili. Therefore, It was decided that the performance of this thresher was assessed at threshing some common wheat varieties in Ardabil province. Effects of drum speed levels (800, 900 and 1000 rpm) of threshing unit of john deere combine (model 955) on damaged grains percent showed that the minimum of this dependent factor was obtained at two levels of drum speed 800 and 900 rpm, clearance between drum and concave 25 mm and forward speed 1.8 km.h-1 (Lashgari et al., 2008). Research performed by Vejasit and Salokhe (2004) on a axial flow thresher revealed that the threshing efficiency can be 98 to 100% at tests for soybean, drum speed 600 to 700 rpm, feed rate 540 to 720 kg h-1 and grain moisture content 14.34 to 22.77 w.b.%. Alizadeh and Khodabakhshipour (2010) found at moisture content 17 to 23 w.b.% and drum speed 450 to 850 rpm at test of an axial flow thresher on paddy, ,the most damaged grains percent obtained at the most level of drum speed 850 rpm and the least level grain moisture content 17 W.b.%. Threshing losses due to mechanical damaged wheat grains during threshing process were reported 5.0, 8.1, 10.0 and 19.9% at tests at drum speed 800, 900, 1000 and 1100 rpm, respectively, by King and Riddols (1962). The results of research reported by Mitchell and Roundthwaite (1964) on investigation of two varieties of wheat resistance at grain moisture content 15 to 25 w.b.% and drum speed levels 17 to 36 m s-1 showed that damaged grains percent mean were 94.8 and 86.8 % at tests at the least and most drum speed levels.
Materials and Methods: The tests were accomplished with three varieties wheat (Azar2, Sardari and Rasad), three speed drum levels (400, 500, 600rpm) and three feed rate levels (600, 900, 1800 kg h-1). Grain moisture content varied from 12 to 13 w.b. %. For supplying requirement powerof thresher, AMitsubishi diesel motor (13.5 hp) was used. Preliminary tests on these wheat varieties showed that this thresher did not have desired threshing efficiency. Therefore, it was decided to use of a concave with less curvature radius. So that the minimum distance between the drum and concave was 6 mm. For adjustment of drum speed, a digital tachometer (Lutron DT-2236) was used some pulleys were used for transmission power from engine to drum shaft, The weight of each sample was 1 kg. To create different levels of feed rate, crop feeding times were considered 2, 4 and 6 seconds. The factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design has been used for analyzing data, Data mean comparison was done by Duncan's Multiple Test.
Results and Discussions: The results of analysis variance showed that effects of variety of the drum speed and feed rate were significant on threshing losses. Damaged grain percent was negligible. The results of mean comparison showed that the most (15.632%) and the least (4.154%) threshing losses obtained at tests on Azar2 and Rasad varieties, respectively. As increasing feed rate from 600 to 1800 kg h-1, threshing losses was decreased significantly. It was due to clusters compression at between drum and concave. The results of mean comparison of triplet interactions showed that the lowest threshing losses (0.147%) obtained at tests on Rasad variety, feed rate of 600 kg h-1 and rotational speed drum level of 600 rpm. the highest threshing losses (39.387%) obtained at tests on Azar2 variety, feed rate 1800 kg h-1 and rotational speed drum level of 400 rpm.
Conclusions:
1. Modified thresher was not able to thresh Azar2 variety. But it was able to thresh Sardary and Rasad wheat varieties with desirable threshing efficiency.
2. According to low and high threshing losses at tests on Rasad and Azar2 varieties, respectively, It must be conclude that shattering of Rasad variety is very high.
3. Damaged grain percent was negligible at test on each three varieties.
S. M. Hosseini; S. Afzalinia; K. Mollaei
Abstract
Introduction: Conservation tillage system was recommended for soil erosion control in North America for the first time 60 years ago (Wang et al., 2006). Using this tillage system including minimum and zero tillage has been rapidly developed in recent years. Thearea covered by zero tillage in 2006 was ...
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Introduction: Conservation tillage system was recommended for soil erosion control in North America for the first time 60 years ago (Wang et al., 2006). Using this tillage system including minimum and zero tillage has been rapidly developed in recent years. Thearea covered by zero tillage in 2006 was 95 million ha all over the world (Dumanski et al., 2006). In addition to saving soil and water resources, conservation tillage system reduces energy consumption and improves energy indices by combining different tillage and planting operations. Results of research conducted in Fars province shows that conservation tillage saves fuel consumption for 77% compared to the conventional system (Afzalinia et al., 2009). Conservation tillage also reduces energy consumption from 23.6 to 42.8% in comparison to the conventional tillage (Rusu, 2005). Since energy indices would be affected by reduced input energies in conservation tillage, this research was conducted to evaluate the effect of different tillage and planting methods on energy inputs and energy indices in irrigated wheat production in Eghlid region.
Materials and Methods: This research was performed to evaluate and compare the energy indices in irrigated wheat production under different tillage and planting methods. The study was conducted in the form of a randomized complete block experimental design with five treatments and three replications in Eghlid region. The treatments were included, conventional tillage and seed broadcasting (A), conventional tillage and planting with Machine Barzegar grain drill (B), reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder (C), direct seeding with Jairan Sanaat grain drill (D), and direct seeding with Sfoggia direct drill (E). Experimental plots with 10 by 50 m dimensions were used in this study. Loss crop residues were taken out of the experimental plots and standing crop residues were retained in the plots. In the conventional tillage method, primary tillage was performed using a moldboard plow and secondary tillage operation was done using a disk harrow and land leveler. Seed bed was prepared in the reduced tillage method using a tine and disc cultivator which was able to complete the primary and secondary tillage operations simultaneously. Wheat seed was directly planted using direct planter without any seed bed preparation in the zero tillage method. Surface irrigation method was used to irrigate the plots and 11970 m3/ha water was consumed in each treatment. Input energies including direct energy (diesel and electricity) and indirect energy (water, labor, seed, fertilizer, chemicals, and machinery) were measured and calculated. Output energies (energy of grain and straw) were measured in each treatment and the share of each input energy, energy ratio, net energy gain, and energy productivity were determined and compared. Collected data were analyzed using SAS software and Duncan’s multiple range tests was used to compare the treatments means.
Results and Discussion: Results showed that tillage and planting methods had a significant effect on fuel and machinery energies; while, the total input energy, crop grain yield, and crop biologic yield were not affected by the tillage and planting methods (Table 4). Fertilizers and chemicals had the highest contribution in input energy of all treatments. Results also indicated that reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder had the highest energy ratio (1.46) and the lowest energy ratio (1.40) was related to the conventional tillage methods (Fig.1). The highest net energy gain (47653 MJ) was obtained from the reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder; while, the lowest amount of net energy gain (41388 MJ) was related to the conventional tillage and planting with Machine Barzegar grain drill (Fig.3). Results also showed that the reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder had the highest energy productivity (0.115 kg MJ-1) and the conventional tillage treatments had the lowest energy productivity of 0.110 kg MJ-1 (Fig.4).
Conclusions: Results of this study showed that conservation tillage treatments (minimum and zero tillage) reduced total energy consumption (input energy) by decreasing fuel consumption and mechanical energy (energy of machinery) compared to the conventional tillage. Therefore, conservation tillage treatments had the higher energy ratio, net energy gain, and energy productivity compared to the conventional treatments. For this reason, conventional tillage and planting methods could be replaced with conservation tillage systems in Eghlid region. Meanwhile, in order to obtain more accurate results in energy indices comparison, differences in water consumption in various tillage and planting methods should be also considered.
M. R. Mostofi Sarkari; M. S. Valiahdi; I. Ranjbar
Abstract
Grain loss monitors are installed on combine harvester and make it possible to measure grain loss on different parts of the combine. The instrument permits the operator to adjust a proper ground speed to keep grain loss within an acceptable range. In this study a loss monitoring system was implemented ...
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Grain loss monitors are installed on combine harvester and make it possible to measure grain loss on different parts of the combine. The instrument permits the operator to adjust a proper ground speed to keep grain loss within an acceptable range. In this study a loss monitoring system was implemented to measure grain losses continuously on straw walker and sieves. Two grain loss monitors (KEE and TeeJet) were installed behind the straw walker and the sieves of JD-955 and JD-1165 combine harvesters. Harvesting performance parameters such as combine total and processing losses were then measured. To evaluate the precision and accuracy of the instruments, the measured and monitored losses were compared and investigated. The results of a two-year research showed that the average processing loss of the combine harvesters with 10-12% grain moisture content and 750 rpm drum speed was 0.82% which is whitin the acceptable range recommended by ASAE Standard No. S343.3. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between the measured and monitored values of processing loss.
Gh. R. Rabet; H. Bahrami; M. J. Sheikhdavoodi
Abstract
Delay in irrigated wheat primary tillage operations causes yield reduction and hidden timeliness cost in Fars province. Mechanization of primary tillage operations for irrigated wheat in Fars province was simulated using System Dynamics approach. A part of the model structure was related to the agricultural ...
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Delay in irrigated wheat primary tillage operations causes yield reduction and hidden timeliness cost in Fars province. Mechanization of primary tillage operations for irrigated wheat in Fars province was simulated using System Dynamics approach. A part of the model structure was related to the agricultural operations timeliness costs. For the mentioned simulation, causal relations between system components were known and the model was run based on time step of 0.125 of one year. The simulation results showed that the operations timeliness cost remained constant (approximately one million rials per hectare) from 2001 to 2004 in the province. The timeliness cost increased from 2004 to 2007 due to the non-uniform distribution of atmospheric precipitation and reached to 1211724 rials per hectare in 2007. The upward trend of this cost continued for the period of 2007 to 2010 because of using depreciated moldboard plows. The model predicted the amount of 2090511 rials per hectare for the timeliness cost in 2018. Furthermore, it was found that reduction in the timeliness cost could be reached either by increasing the plowing speed by %30 in the permissible domain or increading the daily working hours by 4 hours.
S. M. J. Afzali; E. Javaheri
Abstract
This study was carried out to evaluate the effects of tillage practices (with different depths) on soil penetration resistance, technical parameters and grain yield of wheat crop. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with three replications for two years. Treatments included: ...
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This study was carried out to evaluate the effects of tillage practices (with different depths) on soil penetration resistance, technical parameters and grain yield of wheat crop. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with three replications for two years. Treatments included: moldboard plow fallowed by two passes of disc harrow and leveler (CT), two passes of disc harrow plus leveler (RT), subsoiler fallowed by two passes of disc harrow and leveler (S1D) and subsoiler fallowed by rotivator (S1R). The results showed that soil compaction and penetration resistance increased at the end of growth stages because of irrigation operations and cohesion force of soil particles. However due to increasing of cumulative infiltration, it can be concluded that subsoiler caused the formation of micro cracks in different depths of soil. From technical indices viewpoint comparing to CT treatment, S1D and S1R treatments saved fuel consumption up to 2.2 and 10.44 lit ha 1 and tillage operation time up to 0.58 and 1.54 h ha-1, respectively. The result of grain yield assessment showed an increase of 8.5% in grain yield after replacing moldboard plow with annual subsoiling. Subsoiling has advantages such as, good technical indices, elimination of preplanting irrigation and fewer operations in planting time. Finally, subsoiling increased grain yield by 22% as compared to reduced tillage practice
A. Heidari; I. Eskandari
Abstract
A three-year field experiment (2004-2007) was conducted on a silty clay loam soil at Tajarak Research Station of Hamedan to determine proper grain drill for wheat in Hamedan dryland areas. In this study, three grain drills including: Hamedani Barzegar; Sahalan Kesht; and Kesht Gostar with wheat seed ...
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A three-year field experiment (2004-2007) was conducted on a silty clay loam soil at Tajarak Research Station of Hamedan to determine proper grain drill for wheat in Hamedan dryland areas. In this study, three grain drills including: Hamedani Barzegar; Sahalan Kesht; and Kesht Gostar with wheat seed broadcasting and disking were used. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with four replications. In laboratory, the precision of metering device and the amount of seed damage by metering mechanism were measured. At the end of growth season (harvesting time), crop yield and the associated parameters (spike per m2, number of grain per spike, wheat kernel) were determined. Results showed that planting methods did not affect wheat grain yield significantly. However, wheat grain yield was significantly higher for Kesht Gostar grain drill than the other two machines in two drier years. Mean wheat grain yield was 1224 kg ha–1. Mean wheat grain yield was the greatest (1275 kg ha-1) for Kesht Gostar and the least (1174 Kg ha-1) for Hamedani Barzegar grain drill. Mean straw yield was not affected by planting methods. Mean wheat straw yield was the greatest (2349 kg ha-1) for Hamedani Barzegar grain drill, and the least (2009 Kg ha-1) for the combination of seed broadcasting and disking. The amounts of rainfall during growing season strongly influenced wheat grain and straw yields. Mean wheat grain yield was 1572 Kg ha-1 and 1026 Kg ha-1 in wet year and dry years, respectively. This study showed that a wide range of grain drills is adaptable for dryland wheat cropping system for the semiarid Hamedan areas.
J. Habibi Asl; E. Dehghan
Abstract
This study was conducted during two years (2007-2009) in Shawoor Agricultural Research Station on a silty-clay soil. Experiment conducted in split plots in a Randomized Complete Blocks Design in three replications. Main plots were planting methods including centrifugal broadcaster (P1), centrifugal broadcaster ...
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This study was conducted during two years (2007-2009) in Shawoor Agricultural Research Station on a silty-clay soil. Experiment conducted in split plots in a Randomized Complete Blocks Design in three replications. Main plots were planting methods including centrifugal broadcaster (P1), centrifugal broadcaster + furrower (P2), seed drill (P3), seed drill + furrower (P4), three lines bed drilling (P5) and four lines bed drilling (P6). Subplots were included seed rates of 120, 160, 200 and 240 kg.ha-1. The results showed that P2 method with 14.91 litter.ha-1 and P3 method with 5.02 litter.ha-1 had the highest and lowest fuel consumption respectively. P3 method with 1.462 h.ha-1 and P5 method with 0.620 h.ha-1 required maximum and minimum total operation time respectively. P2 method with 0.684 ha.h-1 had minimum field capacity. Field capacity of P5 and P6 with averagely 1.67 ha.h-1 was maximum. Field capacity of all drilling methods (P3, P4, P5 and P6) was significantly more than that of broadcasting methods (P1 and P2). The highest seed spacing uniformity (87.2%) was belonged to P6 method and the lowest value (54.7%) was for P1 method. By using drilling methods of P3 and P5 (or P6) instead of P1 method total cost was reduced 41% and 29% respectively. The results of variance analysis of data showed that the difference between planting methods in case of wheat grain yield and yield components was not significant. However, the seed rate had significant effect on some yield components. Suggestion for cropping of wheat Chamran variety in silty-clay soil in Khuzestan province, used P5, P6 and P3 methods are recommended respectively with seed rate of 120 - 160 kg.ha-1.
N. Loveimi; M. Safari; N. Heidarpour
Abstract
The current study was conducted to compare different tillage methods on wheat yield in pebbly dry land areas done within three years (2006-2008) in north Khouzestan (Baghmalek city) in randomized block design with five treatments and four replications. The experimental treatments were:(1)chisel plow ...
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The current study was conducted to compare different tillage methods on wheat yield in pebbly dry land areas done within three years (2006-2008) in north Khouzestan (Baghmalek city) in randomized block design with five treatments and four replications. The experimental treatments were:(1)chisel plow +seed-drill, (2)Semi plow(mold board plow with remove mold board)+seed-drill, (3)no-till-drill, (4)sweep plow +seed-drill and (5)conventional method(mold board plow+ broadcasting seed and fertilizer+ sweep plow). These treatments included minimum tillage (treatments 1, 2 and 4), no tillage (treatment 3) and conventional tillage (treatment 5). Complex variance analyses of three years data showed that there was no significant difference between tillage methods and interaction of tillage methods with year in soil moisture content in different plant growth stages (stem, flowering, and filling seeds stages) but years were different in this factor. Variance analyses of data showed that there was no significant difference between different tillage methods in percent of organic materials in different soil depths in the end of the project. However, no difference in tillage methods in the amount of organic material has been analyzed based on the pebbly conditions. The complex variance analyses of data also showed that tillage methods had significant effect on grain yield and other agronomical factors, except plant height and harvest index. According to the results any devices cause to back more gravel and cobblestone into sub soil layer provide more grain yield. Therefore, mold board plow resulted in maximum yield in three experimental years which were different in amount and distribution of rainfall, and also in third year the amount of rainfall was considerably low. The grain yield averages of three years were 1333, 1558, 1190, 1080 and 1787 Kg.ha-1 for chisel plow, semi plow, no-till-drill, sweep plow and mold board plow respectively.
