Post-harvest technologies
V. Kahrizi; E. Ahmadi; A. R. Shoshtari
Abstract
IntroductionThe growing consumer demand for high-quality products has led to the development of new technologies for assessing the quality of agricultural products. Iran is the 9th largest orange producer in the world. Every year, large quantities of agricultural products lose their optimal quality due ...
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IntroductionThe growing consumer demand for high-quality products has led to the development of new technologies for assessing the quality of agricultural products. Iran is the 9th largest orange producer in the world. Every year, large quantities of agricultural products lose their optimal quality due to mechanical and physical damage during various operations such as harvesting, packaging, transportation, sorting, processing, and storage. This study is performed to identify the natural frequencies and vibration modes of the Thomson orange fruit using finite element modal analysis by ANSYS software. In addition, physical properties including mass, volume, density, and principal dimensions were measured, and mechanical properties were determined using Instron Texture Profile Analysis. The dynamic behavior of the orange fruit was simulated using the pendulum impact test. Afterward, the obtained impact was applied to the orange fruit by force gauge and three-axis accelerometer sensors in both polar and equatorial directions. The three-dimensional geometric model of the orange fruit was drawn in the ANSYS software. After meshing and applying the boundary conditions, the first 20 modes and corresponding natural frequencies were obtained. Since the objective of this study was to identify the natural frequencies of the orange fruit, it was considered to have free movement and rotation in space. The results showed that the natural frequencies of orange fruit are in the range of 0 to 248.41 Hz. Knowledge of the texture characteristics and dynamic behavior of horticultural products is essential for the design and development of agricultural machinery. Furthermore, the design and development of agricultural machinery are directly related to the biological properties of agricultural products.Materials and MethodsThe Thomson orange variety was used in the present study. The oranges used for the experiments were harvested from the Citrus and Subtropical Fruits Research Institute in Ramsar, Iran, located at coordinates 50° 40′ E and 36° 52′ N. The oranges were subsequently divided into two groups: large (average diameter 82 mm) and small (average diameter 66 mm). Conducting the finite element analysis requires knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties of the flesh and skin of the orange fruit. The physical and mechanical properties of the tested samples include geometric dimensions, modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, and density. In the present study, the dynamic behavior of the orange fruit under dynamic loads was investigated by performing an impact test using a pendulum. The orange fruit was hung from the ceiling using a thin thread to perform experimental tests and extract the modal parameters. The orange samples were subjected to impact at three angles: 7° (below the yield point), 10° (at the dynamic yield point), and 20° (above the dynamic yield point).Results and DiscussionThe comparison of the experimental (laboratory) natural frequencies and simulation validates the simulation results. The experimental natural frequencies of the first, second, and third modes in the large-group oranges are 125.4, 146.9, and 180.4 Hz, respectively. Additionally, the simulation (modal) frequencies are 133.80, 146.16, and 196.66 Hz for the first three modes, respectively. The lowest and the highest differences were observed in the second (0.5%) and third (9.01%) modes, respectively. In the small-group oranges, the first, second, and third modes have experimental natural frequencies of 152.2, 188.8, and 242.2 Hz, respectively, and simulation frequencies are 167.79, 187.50, and 248.30 Hz. The second and first modes exhibited the smallest and largest disparities between experimental and simulated natural frequencies, respectively, at 0.68% and 10.24%.ConclusionWhile there are certain limitations, it is undeniable that Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications are advantageous for predicting the natural frequencies and vibration modes of spherical fruits such as oranges. Utilizing the obtained frequencies, especially the resonance frequency and the vibrational mode shape, enables us to avoid the resonance frequency in the actual transportation of oranges. This is possible through the implementation of suitable packaging and transportation methods, thereby mitigating the deterioration of fruit quality and ensuring an accurate prediction of its shelf life.
Modeling
M. Rahmatian; R. Yeganeh; M. A. Nematollahi
Abstract
IntroductionTillage is a very important operation that influences the growth and productivity of agricultural products. It is necessary to introduce some conditions to improve soil physical properties, aeration, permeability and root development in tillage operations. However, in primary tillage, especially ...
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IntroductionTillage is a very important operation that influences the growth and productivity of agricultural products. It is necessary to introduce some conditions to improve soil physical properties, aeration, permeability and root development in tillage operations. However, in primary tillage, especially when moldboard ploughs are used, this may be time consuming and costly for researchers to use it in their research. Some researchers use physical experiments to perform the work, which the accuracy of the results is dependent on the measuring instruments precision. However, some other researchers use simulation and mathematical modeling to reduce the time and costs and increase the relative accuracy of the research results. Many studies have also shown that modeling the forces involved in tillage is a good way to estimate the performance of different tillage tools and improve their geometry. However, the key to success in numerical simulation of tillage operations is to simulate the exact instrumentation, based on the correct assumptions as well as the proper methods. The prediction of the forces involved in tillage tools has an important role in their design. Collecting data on the forces involved in tillage tool under different farm conditions is a time consuming and costly task. Therefore, the prediction of a tillage tool forces is very important for the designer and the user in order to achieve better performance of the tool. Materials and MethodsIn this study, a cylindrical moldboard made by Alpler Company in Turkey was used to simulate the moldboard. A measuring device was designed and constructed to measure the various points of the desired moldboard. Then, the spatial points obtained by the measuring device were presented to the SolidWorks 2016 software and the desired moldboard was modeled. The finite element method by Abacus 2016 was then used to simulate the interaction between soil and moldboard. Treatments used in simulated tillage operations included tillage depths (5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 cm) and forward speed (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 millimeters per second). The independent variables were considered as tensile, vertical and lateral forces (Kilo newton). After simulating the tillage operations, tensile, vertical and lateral forces were obtained. These forces were modeled using response surface and artificial neural networks techniques. Then, the obtained models were compared using R2, RMSE and MRDM statistical indices and the best model was selected. Results and DiscussionWhen using the response surface method, the quadratic model was selected by using the maximum value of the statistical indices R2, R2a and R2p, among the linear, two-factor and quadratic models. Then, the significance of model variables was evaluated by using variance analysis. The forces were also modeled by using the neural network method. According to the fitting curves and statistical indices of R2, RMSE and MRDM for the tensile, vertical and lateral forces, it is revealed that both methods could well predict the forces but artificial neural network was more suitable than the response surface method. Moreover, by investigating the interactions of tillage treatments and forward speed on the forces in this research, it was observed that by increasing the depth of tillage and velocity, tensile, vertical and lateral forces were increased nonlinearly by 66.55%, 68.47%, and 64.76%, respectively. ConclusionRegarding all the results obtained from this study, it can be concluded that the developed models using the artificial neural network in this research was a good and powerful tool for predicting the forces involved in moldboard ploughs both in the field operations and in related studies. It is also recommended that the developed models in this study can be used to manage the tillage operations, such as selecting the proper tractor. However, it is also suggested that other affecting factors, such as moldboard angles, should be included in future models to increase the ability of the model to predict the forces involved in moldboard plows.
H. Roshan; S. J. Razavi; M. Gheysari
Abstract
Water scarcity is today’s world biggest challenge which requires different countries to manage their water resources in the most efficient way. Sprinkler irrigation increases water consumption efficiency due to more uniform distribution of water across the field. Precision farming is based on the ...
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Water scarcity is today’s world biggest challenge which requires different countries to manage their water resources in the most efficient way. Sprinkler irrigation increases water consumption efficiency due to more uniform distribution of water across the field. Precision farming is based on the site-specific use of inputs according to soil characteristics and plant needs. One of the main inputs for agricultural production is water. Thus, efficient use of water resources based on variable rate irrigation is considered to be a basic approach of precision irrigation. The main purpose of this study was to simulate and fabricate a variable flow sprinkler, applicable in solid set sprinkler irrigation system. The preliminary drawing of the proposed sprinkler, which equipped with a flow and pressure control plunger, was simulated using Fluent software. The actual sprinkler was then fabricated and evaluated in a field. The performance of the sprinkler was evaluated at three pressure levels, three plunger positions (at the points of the least and biggest sprinkler’s cross section for water passage) and three diameters of outlet nozzle opening. Results showed that the plunger had the capability of varying outlet flow and pressure in the sprinkler and trends in flow and pressure variation as affected by the plunger position was very complicated. The Fluent model for conditions with fully open of the plunger and half opened was effectively efficient. However, as the plunger closed the water passage more than the half of cross section, the model did not show an acceptable efficiency.
B. Souri Damirchi Sofla; S. H. Karparvarfard; A. Ranjbar Karim Abadi; H. Azimi-Nejadian; A. Moazni Kalat
Abstract
IntroductionTillage is one of the most important field operations to improve soil structure and physical conditions and provide the proper plant site. Conservation tillage is one of the methods of tillage that reduces tillage costs. The blade is one of the most important consumed components of tillage ...
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IntroductionTillage is one of the most important field operations to improve soil structure and physical conditions and provide the proper plant site. Conservation tillage is one of the methods of tillage that reduces tillage costs. The blade is one of the most important consumed components of tillage tools in the conservation tillage, which is very important for how it is adjusted and its effect on the quality of tillage and energy required of tillage tools. According to the research conducted on the importance of optimizing tillage implements, the aim of this study was oriented to determine the optimum rake angle of a narrow-modified winged and non-winged blade in the field soil.Materials and MethodsThe tests were conducted in the 22nd part of farms in Agriculture School (Bajgah zone) of Shiraz University. Three levels of blade rake angles (20, 25, and 30 degrees), two levels of tillage depth (15 and 20 cm), and two levels of forward speed (2 and 3 km h-1) were the treatments of this study. Draft, fuel consumption, slippage, soil disturbance area, soil upheaving area, and specific draft were the measured parameters and they were measured for each combination of the treatments. The RNAM test code was then used to measure the draft force. In order to measure fuel consumption, two flow meters were used in the round way as a closed-loop. The encoder and the fifth wheel were also employed to measure the slippage. The profilometer and laser meter were applied to measure the soil upheaving and disturbance areas. The split-split plot on randomized complete block design was used to do the field experiments in three replication and the data analysis was performed by SAS software (9.4 edition). Multivariate linear regression was used to determine the optimum values of the mentioned parameters. For this purpose, the lowest value of draft, fuel consumption, specific draft, tractor driver wheel slip, and the highest soil disturbance and upheaving areas was considered.Results and DiscusionThe results showed that the magnitude of draft increased with rake angle, therefore, the minimum draft was obtained in the rake angle of 20°. As the blade rake angle increased, the amount of soil disturbance area was increased and the maximum soil disturbance was obtained in the rake angle of 30°. The mean slip values of the tractor driver wheels when using non-winged blade were not significant for three levels of blade rake angles and it was significant for two velocity levels. With increasing in rake angle from 20 to 25°, the mean values of specific draft were increased, but with changeing the rake angle from 25 to 30°, there was not significant difference between specific draft values. The difference between the magnitude of tractor driver wheels slip for three levels of rake angle was not significant. Increasing the rake angle had a significant effect on tractor fuel consomption, such that it increased by increasing the rake angle values.ConclusionThe optimum rake angle for the non-winged blade mode was 20° with R2 of 0.73 and for the winged blade mode was 30° with R2 of 0.90. The optimum depth for the non-winged blade was 19.98 cm with R2 of 0.99 and for the winged blade was 20 cm with R2 of 0.97. Also, the optimum forward speed values for the non-winged blade was 2.21 km h-1 with R2 of 0.43 and for the winged blade was 2.03 km h-1 with R2 of 0.84.
Agricultural systems engineering (greenhouse, fish farming, mushroom production)
M. Zangeneh; E. Godini
Abstract
IntroductionIn recent years, the lack of adequate regional assessment and classification has led to unequal investments and policies, resulting in polarization and disparities in the development of agricultural units. However, since agricultural products are produced, distributed, and consumed nationwide, ...
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IntroductionIn recent years, the lack of adequate regional assessment and classification has led to unequal investments and policies, resulting in polarization and disparities in the development of agricultural units. However, since agricultural products are produced, distributed, and consumed nationwide, analyzing production conditions across different agricultural systems can provide valuable insights for supply chain managers. A comprehensive evaluation of production system development across the country can enhance product quality, stabilize the supply chain, reduce costs, and improve overall efficiency and performance. These improvements are vital for advancing the agricultural sector and strengthening national competitiveness. In many regions, agriculture forms the backbone of the local economy, making regional equity and balanced development essential for sustainable agricultural growth.Materials and MethodsThis research was conducted with the aim of evaluating the development levels of different provinces of the country in the field of edible mushroom cultivation. The approach of this research is descriptive-analytical. The statistical population includes 31 provinces of Iran, and the required data are based on the results of the 2016 and 2021 censuses of the Statistical Center of Iran. Following the initial review, indicators that emphasize the aspects of human power, infrastructure, performance, waste, economy, and energy were collected. Weight estimation of indicators was done using Shannon's entropy method. The TOPSIS method was used to assess and rank the provinces based on their level of development within the mushroom cultivation industry. The ranking operation was done using eight different index groups: infrastructure, consumption of inputs, value of consumption inputs, types of products and waste, value of payment types, value of product categories, value of energy consumption, and the number of employees and payments to them.Results and DiscussionResults show that in 2016, the provinces were classified into three levels: relatively deprived of development, medium development, and relatively developed. Apart from Alborz province, which was placed at a relatively developed level, other provinces were placed at lower levels. By 2021, all provinces had made significant progress compared to 2016, elevating their development status so that none were classified as relatively deprived. Furthermore, the number of provinces categorized as relatively privileged surged from just one in 2016 to eight by 2021. The findings revealed that the smaller, non-industrialized provinces exhibited greater development compared to their larger, industrialized counterparts.ConclusionThe results showed that Alborz province had the highest level of development, and Semnan province had the lowest level of development of this industry in the country. The level of development and ranking of edible mushroom cultivation units in the provinces was obtained by using different categories of indicators and the TOPSIS multi-criteria decision-making method. To enhance the production and productivity of cultivated edible mushrooms, it is essential to advance cultivation techniques and technologies through the expansion of research initiatives, educational programs, and extension activities.
Modeling
M. Kamali; S. J. Razavi; M. Sadeghi; S. M. Shafaei
Abstract
Introduction: Barley is one of the most important grains with high digestible starch making it a main source of energy in human nutrition as well as in livestock rations formulation and feeding. Starch is the main part of barley grain and it has an inverse relation with its protein. It has a digestible ...
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Introduction: Barley is one of the most important grains with high digestible starch making it a main source of energy in human nutrition as well as in livestock rations formulation and feeding. Starch is the main part of barley grain and it has an inverse relation with its protein. It has a digestible foodstuff of 80 to 84 percent of its dry matter content. Barley as livestock foodstuff should be processed and it is done in several ways. A customary method for processing barley in dairy farms is its size reduction by milling (Hunt, 1996). An alternative method of barley processing is steam rolling. However, because of the high cost of steam generators a method of soaking with heating has been considered as an alternative method for steam rolling (Yang et al., 2000). The rate of moisture absorption by grains during the soaking process varies considerably and depends on the size of the grain, water temperature and the length of soaking. High temperature water soaking is an ordinary way to reduce the time duration for reaching a high rate of moisture absorption during the soaking process (Kashaninejad et al., 2009). Various studies have shown that these models have adequate accuracy in analyzing drying and moisture absorption processes for most agricultural products (Abu-Ghannam and McKenna, 1997). Some researchers have modeled beans moisture absorption behavior using 14 mathematical models and found that the Weibull model had the most conformity with variations in experimental data (Shafaei and Masoumi, 2014c). Observations made by researchers indicate that the moisture absorption process in various materials encompasses a primary phase with a fast rate and a second phase with a lower rate. The second phase in moisture absorption is called the relaxation phase. The main problem with all the mathematical and experimental models is the lack of the model’s ability to evaluate the rate of moisture absorption in the secondary phase. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) as an important artificial intelligent method comparable to human brain capabilities is applied to train and store data in the form of weighted networks (Dayhoff, 1990). This method has superiority to many ordinary statistical and model making methods. In comparison to linear regression models, ANN does not require placing estimated values around mean values and for this reason it retains actual variations in the data being analyzed. Prediction by using trained ANN enables the researchers to decrease or increase input and output variables.Therefore, it is possible to produce a multivariate model with an output even more than the objectives deemed necessary (Heristev, 1998). The goal of this research was to predict instant moisture content of three barley varieties (Reyhan3, Fajr and MB862) during the soaking process under three temperature levels (10, 20 and 45 ◦C) using two conventional ANN methods of multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF) in comparison with viscoelastic mathematical model and reporting the results. Materials and method: Barley varieties were collected from the Isfahan Province Agriculture Organization grain depository and were cleaned and the debris were separated before the experiments. The selected grains were sorted to three groups of small, medium and large grains sizes. To exclude the effect of grain size during moisture absorption, the medium size grains were used. The moisture content of the grains was determined based on the ASAE S352.2 DEC97 (ASAE, 1999) which were %8.23, %8.62 and %8.89 on a dry basis for Reyhan3, Fajr and MB862, respectively with no significant difference at %5 probability level (p>0.05). Experiments were conducted under three temperatures (10, 20 and 45 ◦C) in the refrigerator, at room temperature and in the oven, respectively for each variety. In each experiment, 10 medium size grains were selected randomly and weighed with an AND laboratory scale model Gf-400 (made in Japan) and placed in foam containers having 200 mg of distilled water. Grains were weighed after a predetermined period of elapsed time (5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120, etc. minutes). The experiments were conducted with three replications and moisture absorption rates were determined by the equations presented by McWatters et al., 2002. The experiments were conducted on a time table based on which the time for the dissolving of grains was reached. In this case, the moisture content of the grains reaches the saturation point. According to equations presented by Peleg, as water density increases as much as 0.01 gram due to grains dissolving in water, the saturation point has been reached (Peleg, 1988). For this reason, distilled water density was measured and controlled before and after each experiment by a pycnometer. Neural network was designed according to the two methods of multi-layer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF) with three neuron layers. The first layer, i.e. input layer, is independent variables of temperature and time.The second layer, i.e. hidden layers, is the networks hidden layer and the third layer, i.e. output layer, is the dependent variable of moisture content which was selected. In each case, the nonlinear reduced gradient, combined gradient and BFGS algorithm, and Trigonometric, Logarithmic, Gaussian, and Logical functions were used to train, test and evaluate the network. To evaluate the predicting viscoelastic model and the network, we used statistical indices maximum value of coefficient of determination (R2) and minimum value of mean square error (RMSE).Results and Discussion: Moisture absorption curves showed that as the temperature increases, moisture absorption rate increases as well. Higher equilibrium moisture levels are obtained in water with higher temperatures. This phenomenon is the result of increased moisture diffusion in grains due to higher temperature levels. Higher water temperatures causes grain internal material which is mainly starch to gelatinize and, thus, the internal tissues resistance to moisture absorption reduces (Ranjbari et al., 2011). The moisture absorption rate increases as immersion temperature and gelatinization temperature reach closer to each other. Conclusions: The results of this study showed that although viscoelastic mathematical model has an adequate accuracy for instant prediction of barley grain moisture content, it has a lower accuracy compared to intelligent models. On the other hand, among the two neural network methods, MLP method has a higher accuracy in predicting moisture content compared to RBF method. MLP obtained the best results for three varieties of barley because of back- propagation learning algorithm with BFGS algorithm and 2-4-1 network structure. According to the prediction of the best neural network which was selected, three-dimensional graphs of moisture content based on temperature and time variables, showed that with an increase in temperature and duration of immersion, moisture absorption increases for three varieties of barley.
S. Sadeghzade Namavar; J. Amiri Parian; R. Amiri Chayjan
Abstract
Introduction The artichoke is part of the foods from the vegetable group that provide important nutrients like vitamin A and C, potassium and fiber which used as a food and medicine. In the pharmaceutical sector, dried extracts are used in the preparation of pills and capsules. Dried extracts can be ...
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Introduction The artichoke is part of the foods from the vegetable group that provide important nutrients like vitamin A and C, potassium and fiber which used as a food and medicine. In the pharmaceutical sector, dried extracts are used in the preparation of pills and capsules. Dried extracts can be prepared from the dehydration of a concentrated extractive solution from herbal materials (leaves, roots, seeds, etc.), resulting in a dried powder. The spray drying is widely used in the preparation of dried powders from extracts of medicinal plants, fruit pulps. One of the newly developed spray drying techniques is an ultrasonic vacuum method, which strengths of spray drying by incorporation of ultrasonic atomizer and vacuum chamber. Nowadays, image processing has been applied to food images, as acquired by different microscopic systems, to obtain numerical data about the morphology and microstructure of the analyzed foods. For this purpose, microscopy and image processing techniques could be considered as proper tools to evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively the food microstructure, making possible to carry out numerical correlations between microstructure data, as obtained from the images, and the textural properties of food powders. The textural characteristics of the obtained dried powders are determined by means of a perfect detection by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures, and analyzed with a statistical approach for image texture studies, which calls the gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) technique. The object of this study was to illustrate the application of image processing to the study of texture properties from extract powder using GLCM texture analysis and some vacuum spray dryer conditions effect on the texture features of mass particles and single particle SEM images. Materials and Methods After preparing water extract solution from artichoke leaves, extracts were dried under four conditions of vacuum spray drying (according to Table 1). To study the texture of the obtained dried extract powders, different representative features are extracted from the GLCM matrix. The angular second moment (ASM), which is defined as a measure of the homogeneity of the image, the contrast parameter (CT), which represents the amount of local variations given by differences in the gray values in the image. The correlation value (CR), which is a measure of gray tone linear dependencies in the image depending on the direction of the measure (different θs). The inverse difference moment value (IDM), which, similar to ASM, quantifies the homogeneity of the image, however, using a different equation, the entropy parameter (ET), which is a measure that is inversely related to the order given by the gray tones in the image. Rangefilt and stdfilt calculates the local range and local standard deviation of an image respectively. Entropyfilt calculates the local entropy of a grayscale image also. Parameters (ASM, CT, CR and IDM were analyzed in four directions (0º, 45º, 90º, and 135º). Results and Discussion The results of analysis of variance showed that, the difference between the textural features of a single particle and mass particles in four different conditions vacuum spray dryer was significant statistically. Texture analysis was demonstrated that larger ASM, CR, and IDM values indicate less roughness, whereas larger CT and ET values indicate more roughness. At lower inlet temperature and higher vacuum pressure, water diffusion in the material to be slower and allowing the deformation process in the particles to be more pronounced. Consequently, it was possible to observe that generated smaller particles are rougher and less spherical. When the concentration is increased, due to the constant concentration of the additive, the ratio of excipient (lactose) to extraction decreased, as a result were formed a greater number of particles with rougher surfaces. According to these conditions, the values of CT, ET, rangefilt and stdfilt were larger while ASM, CR, and IDM values were smaller. By analyzing the effect of the angle on the oriented textural characteristics, the contrast and correlation parameter were maximum at the angles of 45 and 135 degrees and 0 and 90 degrees respectively. Conclusion Image processing could be auxiliary tools for understanding and characterizing complex systems such as food and biological materials. In this study imaging-based technique was developed to evaluate the texture properties of artichoke leaf extract powder at different conditions of vacuum spray drying. The use of higher temperatures and lower vacuum pressures contributed to faster evaporation rate and production of smoother and larger particles, thereby increasing ASM, CR, and IDM values and reducing CT, ET, Rangefilt and stdfilt. Furthermore, the contrast and entropy parameters showed inverse trends in comparison with correlation, energy and homogeneity. Decrease of solution concentration resulted in the more presence of lactose in the composition of extract/excipient improves the textural properties of powders. The direction parameter had also affected on GLCM textural features. Two oriented textural characteristics (contrast and correlation) also showed significant differences with respect to the nature of particle texture in different directions of measurement. The obtained data extracted from image analysis may provide valuable information to understand the role of structure with respect to product functionality.
Image Processing
A. Heidari; J. Amiri Parian
Abstract
Introduction Lack of water resources, increasing demands for food, the optimal use of water and land, and food security are of the most important reasons for the development of greenhouses in the country. The benefits of greenhouse cultivation consisted of the possibility to produce off-season, increase ...
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Introduction Lack of water resources, increasing demands for food, the optimal use of water and land, and food security are of the most important reasons for the development of greenhouses in the country. The benefits of greenhouse cultivation consisted of the possibility to produce off-season, increase harvest period, reduce the production costs, increase economic efficiency and etc. Regarding the conditions of the greenhouse, in terms of temperature and humidity, a site is susceptible to contamination with various pests and diseases, which can cause a lot of damages to the products. So, for a high-quality product, identification and timely control of pests are necessary. The need for spraying in a timely manner, with a sufficient number of times, is to have accurate information on the population of pests in a greenhouse environment at different times. Whiteflies, thrips, and aphids are among the most commonly known harmful insects in the world, causing severe damages to greenhouse plants. Materials and Methods Twenty yellow sticky cards were randomly selected in different parts of the greenhouse of cucumbers in the Amzajerd district of Hamadan. From each card, 45 photos were taken with Canon IXUS 230HS digital camera with a resolution of 12.1 Megapixels at a distance of 20 centimeters. Before each image processing, trapped insects were initially identified and counted by three entomologists. At this stage, three types of insects (two harmful insects, whitefly and thrips and non-harmful insect) were identified. Then the images were transferred to Matlab software. The algorithm of identifying and counting the whitefly was the following six steps: Step 1: Convert the original image to the gray level image Step 2: Correcting the effects of non-uniform lighting Step 3: Determine the optimal threshold and convert the gray level image to the binary image Step 4: Remove objects smaller than Whitefly Step 5: Fill the holes in the image Step 6: Counting broken segments The algorithm of identifying and counting the thrips was the following eight steps: Step 1: Convert the original image to the gray level image Step 2: Correcting the effects of non-uniform lighting Step 3: Determine the optimal threshold and convert the gray level image to the binary image Step 4: Prepare image negatives Step 5: Remove objects smaller than the thrips Step 6: Remove the thrips and isolate the rest of the objects Step 7: Split the thrips Step 8: Count the thrips Results and Discussion Relative accuracy, root mean square error (RMSE) and Coefficient of variation of the RMSE of Whitefly counting in image processing system were 94.4%, 15.3 and 5.5% respectively. The results of the T-test between two methods indicated that there was no significant difference between them. The mean relative accuracy, root mean square error (RMSE) and Coefficient of variation of the RMSE of the thrips count in the image processing system were 87.4%, 18 and 5.9% respectively. There was no significant difference between the two methods. Conclusion The proposed image processing algorithm was able to detect whiteflies and thrips with a relative accuracy of 94.5% and 87.4%, respectively. In addition to simplicity, this method has the ability to adapt to different conditions. Also, with some changes in the proposed algorithm, the system will also be able to identify other pests. In order to design an intelligent spray system in the greenhouse, the population of pests needs to be monitored frequently, so the identification and counting of pests will be necessary for the intelligent spray system.
Bioenergy
M. Eshaghi Pireh; M. Gholami Par-Shokohi; D. Mohammad Zamani
Abstract
IntroductionBiodiesel is an eco-friendly renewable alternate fuel and is made from transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fat. The use of biodiesel fuel as a strategy to conserve energy and reduce emissions is becoming increasingly important in engines. Biodiesel fuels increase NOx emissions ...
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IntroductionBiodiesel is an eco-friendly renewable alternate fuel and is made from transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fat. The use of biodiesel fuel as a strategy to conserve energy and reduce emissions is becoming increasingly important in engines. Biodiesel fuels increase NOx emissions in the engines. Compensate for the negative effect, the use of particles additive can be a reliable solution. In this study, the state of heat balance in a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine with different fuel combinations with DXBYGZ formula (X % diesel fuel, Y % biodiesel mass, and Z ppm graphene oxide nanoparticles), has been studied experimentally.Materials and MethodsGraphene nanoparticles in three levels of 30, 60, and 90 ppm were mixed with biodiesel produced from cooking waste oil by transesterification method with volume percentages of 5 and 20% and pure diesel was used. The test engine was a diesel engine, single-cylinder, four-stroke, compression ignition, and water cooling, in the laboratory of renewable energies of agricultural faculty, Moghadas Ardabili University. The engine is connected to a dynamometer and data were obtained after reaching steady state conditions. In thermal balance study, the combustion process merely as a process intended to free up energy fuel, and the first law of thermodynamics is used. The energy contained in the fuel is converted to useful and losses energies by combustion. Useful energy measured by dynamometer as brake power and losses energy including exhaust emission and cooling system losses. Variance analysis of all engine energy balance was done by split-plot design based on a completely randomized design and the means were compared with each other using the Duncan test at 5% probability.Results and DiscussionThe results showed that by adding 60 ppm of graphene oxide and 20% biodiesel to diesel fuel, the useful output power is reduced to a minimum and is reduced by about 5.52%. The results of the model evaluation of useful power, exhaust emissions, and thermal losses in the cooling system showed that the exponential model had a better fit. By adding biodiesel and graphene oxide nanoparticles to diesel fuel, the useful power was reduced. In order to achieve the maximum useful output power and with the priority of adding biodiesel to a high amount, the fuel composition of D80B20G90 had relatively better conditions. By adding 30 ppm of graphene to pure diesel fuel, the equivalent power of exhaust fumes was reduced to a minimum of about 18.5%. In general, heat loss through the cooling system in pure diesel fuel (D100) was lower than other fuel compounds. Pure diesel fuel was recognized as the best fuel mixture due to having the highest useful power, and lowest energy losses in the form of exhaust fumes and through cooling.ConclusionBy adding graphene oxide to pure diesel fuel, the useful output power was reduced to a minimum. With the increase of biodiesel to diesel fuel, the amount of power of the cooling system also increased. By adding graphene oxide to pure diesel fuel, the equivalent power of the exhaust fumes was reduced. Heat loss through the cooling system increased with the increase of nano-graphene and biodiesel.
Sh. Nowrouzieh
Abstract
IntroductionCotton, as one of the most widely used products in various industries, has always been considered by leading countries in agriculture. The applications of this plant range from the food industry to the military industry, as well as the textile and animal nutrition industry. It is predicted ...
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IntroductionCotton, as one of the most widely used products in various industries, has always been considered by leading countries in agriculture. The applications of this plant range from the food industry to the military industry, as well as the textile and animal nutrition industry. It is predicted that by 2025, the area under cotton cultivation in the world will reach more than 33 million hectares (FAO, 2017). Based on the growing population, it is necessary to use machines in industries and other sectors to accelerate production and increase efficiency. Cotton is no exception to this rule. The use of a machine can play an effective role in reducing harvest costs and decreasing losses from frost and early fall rainfall by enabling timely harvesting.Material and MethodsArmaghan cultivar is an early-maturing cotton cultivar with high yield potential and good compatibility, introduced for conventional and secondary crops in Golestan, North Khorasan, Ardabil, and the central regions of Iran. The early maturity of this cultivar provides the possibility of cotton cultivation after wheat harvest in different regions of Iran. It reduces pests and diseases through the escape mechanism and completes the growth period in delayed planting. In this research, two types of picker machines were compared. One of the harvesting machines used in this study is a two-row self-propelled spindle picker machine, and the other picking machine is a two-row tractor semi-mounted dentate picker. Before harvesting with a machine, it is necessary to use a defoliator. This allows for seed cotton harvest with less trash and more cleanliness. About ten to fifteen days after spraying the defoliator, the leafless plants are ready for machine harvesting. In this study, the number of leaves was counted before spraying and before harvest, and the percentage of defoliation in each treatment was calculated and evaluated. The harvesting efficiency of machines, machine losses, and fiber qualities for each harvester was measured.Results and DiscussionsThe results showed that the type of machine has a significant effect on plant residues and machine performance. However, the loss on the ground is not affected by the type of machine and remains almost the same for both machines. The mean comparisons revealed that the spindle harvesting machine leaves more than twice the amount of residues on the plant compared to the dentate harvesting machine. In terms of fiber quality, no significant difference was observed in any of the qualitative properties, and both machines perform at the same level.ConclusionThe results of this research on the functional characteristics of picker machines and the cultivar and field conditions demonstrate that a higher percentage of leaves on the plant yields better performance from dentate picker machines compared to spindle pickers. Spindle pickers are sensitive to leaves due to the teeth on their needles, causing reduced efficiency in such fields. In contrast, dentate picker machines work well and perform better under these conditions. Based on this study, the dentate harvesting machine is more suitable than the spindle picker machine for harvesting Armaghan cotton cultivars.
Design and Construction
M. Zamani; M. Aboonajmi; S. R. Hassan Beigi Bidgoli
Abstract
IntroductionOne of the ways used for minimizing the cost of maintenance and repairs of rotating industrial equipment is condition monitoring using acoustic analysis. One of the most important problems which always have been under consideration in industrial equipment application is confidence possibility. ...
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IntroductionOne of the ways used for minimizing the cost of maintenance and repairs of rotating industrial equipment is condition monitoring using acoustic analysis. One of the most important problems which always have been under consideration in industrial equipment application is confidence possibility. Each dynamic, electrical, hydraulic or thermal system has certain characteristics which show the normal condition of the machine during function. Any changes of the characteristics can be a signal of a problem in the machine. The aim of condition monitoring is system condition determination using measurements of the signals of characteristics and using this information for system impairment prognostication. There are a lot of ways for condition monitoring of different systems, but sound analysis is accepted and used extensively as a method for condition investigation of rotating machines. The aim of this research is the design and construction of considered gearbox and using of obtaining data in frequency and time spectrum in order to analyze the sound and diagnosis.Materials and MethodsThis research was conducted at the department of mechanical biosystem workshop at Aboureihan College at Tehran University in February 15th.2015. In this research, in order to investigate the trend of diagnosis and gearbox condition, a system was designed and then constructed. The sound of correct and damaged gearbox was investigated by audiometer and stored in computer for data analysis. Sound measurement was done in three pinions speed of 749, 1050 and 1496 rpm and for correct gearboxes, damage of the fracture of a tooth and a tooth wear.Gearbox design and construction: In order to conduct the research, a gearbox with simple gearwheels was designed according to current needs. Then mentioned gearbox and its accessories were modeled in CATIA V5-R20 software and then the system was constructed.Gearbox is a machine that is used for mechanical power transition from a productive source of power to a consumer, for torque meeting and for rotating speed needed for the consumer. In fact, gearbox is an interfere between power source and power consumer which produces a flexible communication between power source and power consumer. Needing to a gearbox as a machine which can generate harmony as an interface is unavoidable due to lack of harmony of torque and rotating speed of production source of power. So necessary calculations in order to attain to technical characteristics of gearwheels, bearings, shaft dimensions and other accessories of gearbox were done. This gearbox is from kinds of simple gearwheel which its input and output shaft are parallel to each other. Main accessories of gearbox are: 1.crust 2.shaft 3.gearwheel 4.thorn 5.bearing 6.cover. All of the design parameters were calculated and considered in designing of all of the accessories of gearbox.Electromotor rotating calibration: For this aim, a light-contact telemeter in model of Lutron was used as contact.Acoustic module of electro motor: A module was constructed in order to prevent from sound waves interaction resulting from an electromotor function with waves of gearbox function. Three layers of sound absorbent including common felt with 1mm width, polyethylene foam with 15 mm width and shoulder foam egg with 35 mm width were used for the module insulation. Material used for the body of this module was MDF. Based on field measurement, level of electromotor sound decrement using the acoustic module was 20dB. Investigated malfunctions in this research are relevant to gearwheel with one tooth fracture, one worn tooth and one tooth fracture and other worn tooth.Collection and storage of acoustic data: In this research, an audiometer in model of HT-157 made in Italy in order to obtain acoustic data and a laptop with a model of Lenovo-G550 for data storage and processing was used. Cool Edit Pro 2.0 software was used for data processing. Data storage was in PCM format and MATLAB R2014a software used for data processing.Data processing: Signal processing method in the frequency domain is used in order to reveal the defects. Fast Fourier Transform: Fast Fourier Transform FFT for application in electronic equipment specially analyzers have great importance. In this condition, sampling number is chosen exponentially as 2N which decreases the calculation volume significantly. Determination of defect kind of gearwheel using frequency spectrum analysis: In mentioned gearwheel, errors were generated synthetically. Defect kind of these errors was generated in separate gearwheels in order to investigate the defects more precisely and a gearwheel was considered as control gearwheel. Despite of this, the sound of all of the gearwheels in correct condition was stored. Results and DiscussionComparison of processed acoustic signals from gearwheels of gearbox in two correct and incorrect conditions was indicative of gearwheel involvement, frequency, their harmony and the changes resulted from defects. Gearwheel defect detection tests showed that at the speeds of 1496, 1050 and 749 rpm, investigated defects are recognizable with a comparison of the frequency spectrum of obtained signals in correct and incorrect conditions and according to the involvement frequency of gearwheel, its harmony and sided spectrum. Results of the frequency spectrum of signal analysis in speed of 1496 rpm pinion showed the defect of one tooth fracture in involvement frequency of gearwheels by 489, 350 and 249 Hz respectively which became apparent with a mentioned frequency domain increment. A worn tooth defect in a gearwheel was completely determinable as sided bands with equal distance around gearwheel involvement frequency in the signal frequency determination of the speeds of 1496 and 105 rpm pinion, but became a bit harder in less speeds. Investigation of frequency spectrum of acoustic signal resulted from gearwheel, is indicative of the ability of this method in gearbox condition investigation with high precision and minimum time. So the gearbox condition investigation is reached by investigation of the frequency spectrum of acoustic signal resulted from gearwheel.ConclusionsIn current research, acquisitive signals resulted from produced sound waves of constructed gearwheel were used for investigation and diagnosis. Recorded signal in time domain and processed frequency and exploited characteristics of signal in frequency domain for diagnosis were analyzed. Obtained results of this research can be summarized as follow:1. Precision level in the diagnosis decreased by increasing in pinion speed.2. There will be a decrement in gearwheel diagnosis after defects integration and signal behavior won’t be completely similar to the defect as individual. 3. Proper placement of audiometer is effective in diagnosis trend.4. In frequency spectrum of obtained signals, particle velocity level is more efficient in diagnosis than the sound pressure level.
Post-harvest technologies
C. N. Onwusiribe; J. Mbanasor; P. O. Nto; M. C. Ndukwu
Articles in Press, Corrected Proof, Available Online from 31 May 2025
©2025 The author(s). This is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).
https://doi.org/10.22067/jam.2024.89115.1267
Abstract
Rice is a major staple food consumed worldwide, but its processing has significant environmental impacts due to water and energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, rice producers are adopting sustainable processing techniques to reduce negative environmental impacts and increase profitability. ...
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Rice is a major staple food consumed worldwide, but its processing has significant environmental impacts due to water and energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, rice producers are adopting sustainable processing techniques to reduce negative environmental impacts and increase profitability. This study analyzed the sustainability of modern and traditional paddy rice processing techniques among smallholder rice farmers in Southeast Nigeria. The data was collected from 240 rice producers using statistical approaches such as descriptive statistics, sustainability indicator (Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis), and multinomial regression analysis. The results showed that 34.7% of rice farmers used modern processing techniques while 65.3% used traditional methods. Traditional milling produced substantial carbon emissions, according to 77% of small-scale farmers, while 68% rated noise pollution as high. 80-100% of small-scale farmers using modern techniques cared about the environment and wanted to reduce their gas emissions, solid waste, energy use, and water use. The sustainability index for farmers using traditional and modern processing techniques was affected by gender experience, labor size, investment, income, cost of production, understanding of climate change, and environmental sustainability. The study recommends using renewable energy sources to increase productivity and reduce environmental effects.
T. Mesri Gundoshmian; P. Alighaleh; S. Alighale; B. Najafi
Abstract
Introduction Growth of population, deficiency of resources, environmental hazards, fast spatial science progress and relevant subjects have resulted in significant effects of enhanced accuracy and modern technologies in agricultural technology and management methods. One of the modern technologies’ ...
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Introduction Growth of population, deficiency of resources, environmental hazards, fast spatial science progress and relevant subjects have resulted in significant effects of enhanced accuracy and modern technologies in agricultural technology and management methods. One of the modern technologies’ utilities in production and nondestructive tests is determination of product characteristics (such as product height), using electronic sensors at different stages of plant growth. In recent years, electric sensors improved widely in farm science. Regarding to wide performance of sensors, from simple sensors such as thermo, light and moisture sensors, to complex ones such as GPS and lidar, also the ability of electronic sensors to exact identification and measurement of special farm properties, makes these sensors to an important part of precision agriculture. The subject of this study is to identify and measure the height of the product using ultrasonic technology to automate control of breeding and harvesting operations. Suitable price and noise and dust resistance of ultrasonic sensor, make it an attractive subject in biosystem industries and farm operations. Materials and Methods Plant height measurement Ultrasonic sensor includes an ultrasonic transmitter and receiver with more than 20 kHz frequency. As other waves, ultrasonic waves diffuse constantly from a source by mechanical distracting in a gas, liquid or solid environment. The distance between sensor and object is a function of the wave passing time from generation point to receive point. Plant height calculated by estimating this distance and minus it from sensor height. The sensor used in this research had a diffuse angle of 40 degrees to center axis of source. The sensor ability to height measurement depends on leaves angle, leaves surface, plant aggregation in area and plant height. Leaves angle is the most important factor in recognization ability of ultrasonic sensor. Electronic system design The height measurement electronic system includes: 40 kHz Ultrasonic transmitter with diameter of 10 mm, 67 db ultrasonic receiver, Signal amplifier circuit (op-amp), AVR Microcontroller, (atmega 128) and a 64×128 pi LCD. Electronic part of system produces 40 kHz pulse initially and locates on one of the outlet bases of microcontroller. Then, this pulse is amplified and sent to ultrasonic sensor transmitter for maximum performance of the transmitter. The received pulse has low power so it shoud be amplified by an amplifier to be recognizable by the microcontroller. The received signal transmitted to digital signal by a high-speed 128 AVR atmega microcontroller. The sensor calibrated in the first phase using artificial barriers, the data analyzed by linear regression and paired mean comparison test in SPSS and EXCEL software. Results and Discussion Corn height measured by designed system in a test by 100 plots and 10 blocks. Thus, the blocks had a dimension of 1m length and 10cm width. System output recorded in first block and the block length passed by system with 10cm distances. Actual measurement accuracy comprised as pixels to data from manual measurement. The results didn’t show any significant difference between means. The regression coefficient of model was calculated 99%. The operating phase continued in a lab to measure maize height. The results showed high linear correlation between ultrasonic output voltage and manual measurement. This linear correlation led to present a linear regression model with the regression coefficient of 95%. Correlated mean comparison used for all of data too, i.e. the data obtained by the two measurement methods were compared by t-paired test. So it’s defensible that with 99% confidence, sensor can estimate the real value of height with high accuracy. Conclusion Utilization of measurement technologies and accuracy enhancement in agricultural production systems are unavoidable. In this research, corn height was measured accurately by ultrasonic technology. According to the results, identifying the presence or absence of plant, precision control of the operations (e.g. spraying) and measuring the height of the plants (to set the cutting height at combine harvester). Obviously, the produced device can identify plant height with precision, and can use in different phases of precision agriculture such as seeding row identification, machinery path determination to minimize plant’s loss, poison optimization and harvesting.
Precision Farming
A. Ghaffarnezhad; H. Navid; H. Karimi
Abstract
IntroductionImproving field operations through precise spot planting rates depends on the accurate functioning of seed flow sensors within the working rows. Despite the availability of these sensors in the market, achieving measurement precision remains a challenge in their optimal design. Seed flow ...
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IntroductionImproving field operations through precise spot planting rates depends on the accurate functioning of seed flow sensors within the working rows. Despite the availability of these sensors in the market, achieving measurement precision remains a challenge in their optimal design. Seed flow sensors can be categorized into two primary types: optical and non-optical. Among these, optical sensors—particularly infrared sensors—are gaining popularity among researchers due to their distinct advantages, including simple circuit design, cost-effectiveness, and a strong correlation with seed flow. However, the accuracy of these sensors tends to diminish over time due to dust accumulation from planting operations and the effects of sunlight. In response to these challenges, researchers are actively exploring various solutions, employing diverse approaches such as the development of different algorithms and the utilization of alternative hardware configurations. Each research initiative aims to address specific challenges associated with these sensors, with the overarching goal of facilitating effective commercialization, optimizing resource use, and minimizing waste.Materials and MethodsTwo distinct algorithms, utilizing analog-to-digital converter and interrupt-based methodologies, were meticulously developed and thoroughly evaluated to determine the more effective method for monitoring. Correspondingly, unique circuits were engineered for each algorithm.To enhance the sensitivity of the sensor while simplifying the circuit's complexity and dimensions, the lm324 Op-Amp was used in the interrupt-based sensor circuit. Adjusting sensitivity was made feasible through a multi-turn potentiometer, enabling precise adjustment of the external interrupt within the microcontroller. On the other hand, the analog-to-digital converter-based circuit, without relying on the LM324 chip, provided a more straightforward and quieter configuration.The intricate nature of construction mandated the design of circuits using Altium Designer 17 software, which was then printed onto circuit boards. Both developed circuits featured the deployment of the STM32F103C8T6 microcontroller, renowned for its robust capabilities and cost efficiency.In the interrupt-based algorithm's development, the microcontroller's external interrupt was used, selecting its sensitivity to detect both rising and falling edges. This strategic configuration ensured comprehensive scanning of all receivers by the analog-to-digital converter upon any interruption in the infrared sensors. Given the singular passage of seeds in precision seeding, each pass was counted as a single seed.At the start of the planting operation and upon reaching the end of each planting row, the microcontroller employed a micro-switch to sample the output of the infrared sensor, which were then used to execute further calculations based on those samples. Throughout the planting process, the microcontroller continuously performed sensor scanning and promptly converted the sensor outputs into binary values based on defined thresholds. Then, it counted the seeds based on the predetermined counting thresholds for the number of passes.The efficacy of these developed algorithms and sensors underwent rigorous testing encompassing hybrid corn seeds, popcorn, soybean, and mung bean. The evaluation was conducted on an 11-meter-long conveyor belt platform, tested at three different speeds: 4, 7, and 10 km h-1, through five distinct iterations. This comprehensive evaluation ensured the robustness and reliability of the algorithms across diverse seed types and varying operational conditions.Results and DiscussionTest results indicate that interrupt-based sensors demonstrate impressive seed counting capabilities; however, they may encounter issues such as susceptibility to dust and the need for manual recalibrations. Moreover, these sensors exhibited acceptable performance across various crops, including corn and soybeans. Nonetheless, variations in seed characteristics could affect counting accuracy. Additionally, simultaneous seed passage through the sensor under certain conditions posed challenges, diminishing the sensor's precision. On the other hand, sensors employing analog-to-digital algorithms showed promising performance. They offer enhanced adjustability compared to their interrupt-based counterparts, showcasing adaptability to diverse conditions. In summary, each sensor type has its strengths and weaknesses. Sensors that utilize analog-to-digital converter algorithms may offer superior performance in varied scenarios due to their advanced features and adaptable configurations.ConclusionThis study developed and tested two seed counting algorithms: one based on interruption and the other utilizing an analog-to-digital converter. Both algorithms effectively counted seeds larger in diameter than the distance between adjacent LEDs with remarkable accuracy. However, due to their reliance on infrared optical components, both were susceptible to dust generated during planting operations. The algorithm utilizing the analog-to-digital converter demonstrated a notable advantage. Its ability to adjust the threshold either at the start of planting or at the end of each crop row provided a distinct edge over the interruption-based algorithm. Consequently, the analog-to-digital converter-based algorithm was selected as the superior choice for this research.AcknowledgmentThe authors express appreciation for the financial support provided by the University of Tabriz.
Modeling
M. A. Hormozi; H. Zaki Dizaji; H. Bahrami; N. Monjezi
Abstract
IntroductionThe development of mechanization and machine technology can have positive and negative effects on the economic, social, and environmental conditions of a region. Conflicts in these areas complicate the selection and optimization of sustainable mechanization systems. One of the basic questions ...
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IntroductionThe development of mechanization and machine technology can have positive and negative effects on the economic, social, and environmental conditions of a region. Conflicts in these areas complicate the selection and optimization of sustainable mechanization systems. One of the basic questions in the selection of a sustainable agricultural mechanization system is how and with what methodology would it be possible to propose the closest mechanization model that will overcome the simultaneous contradictions between the three pillars of sustainability; taking into account the natural and technical limitations in agricultural production. What is the appropriate approach considering the economic, environmental, and social aspects? The current research aims to provide a framework for an optimal mechanization model to achieve the goals of agricultural sustainability so that it can be implemented and applied practically. It is possible to provide a model that addresses the conflicting economic, social, and environmental aspects by quantitatively optimizing the level of mechanization.Materials and Methods In this study, a framework is applied whereby contradictory goals of agricultural sustainability can be achieved simultaneously. After selecting the indices and data collection, by combining Shannon entropy and TOPSIS, the similarity index was obtained for each objective. The similarity indices and values of the Benefit-Cost Ratio calculated for each system were considered as coefficients of three objective (economic, social, and environmental) functions in multi-objective optimization. The multi-objective optimization model was applied to achieve sustainable mechanization patterns and was solved using the NSGA-II algorithm. For framework validation, paddy production mechanization systems in the Ramhormoz region located in southwestern Iran were analyzed with constraints: land, water, and machinery. The five mechanization systems of paddy production included puddled transplanted, un-puddled transplanted, water seeded, dry seeded, and, no-till.Results and DiscussionPareto-optimal solutions of different scenarios with water and machine constraints showed that this framework cannot only meet the sustainable goals, but also the optimal allocation of mechanization systems is identified and the effect of different scenarios under different constraints can be examined. The sustainability goals between the no-tillage and planting with puddling systems are highly contradictory. The no-tillage system has the highest score in the environmental aspect and the lowest score in the social and economic aspects. This modern system was developed in Ramhormoz three years ago and has faced technical, economic, and social challenges ever since. The cultivated area using this system was 43 hectares in 2019. Despite the speed and ease of planting with this system, and its direct environmental benefits, the possibility of fungal outbreaks is raised due to the presence of wheat residues from previous cultivation and the warm and humid environment of cultivation. Additionally, weed outbreaks caused by periodic irrigation have greatly affected the satisfaction and profitability of this system, leading to the highest amount of pesticides consumed among the studied systems. The results of multi-objective optimization of sustainable rice mechanization systems in Ramhormoz city showed that the total surface area of optimal point systems is in the range of 2700 to 3200 hectares, which is close to the area under rice cultivation in Ramhormoz (3310 hectares) and it indicates that the output of the model is according to the applied restrictions and close to reality. The limitation of machinery and water has made the two planting systems of un-puddled transplanting and dry-seeding better than other systems. Removing only the machinery restriction can lead to an increase in the area under rice cultivation by about 700 hectares. This means that the requirement for the development of sustainable rice cultivation in Ramhormoz is to strengthen and support modern mechanized systems of no-tillage, dry-seeding, and planting with puddling, with a focus on systems with less water consumption which are the systems with higher levels of mechanization. Without water limitation, if the model is subject to the current machinery limitations, the optimal mechanization systems are the more traditional ones such as transplanting without puddling and wet-seeding.ConclusionOne of the most fundamental challenges in the development of mechanization is identifying systems that can best balance the economic, social, and environmental aspects of sustainability and minimize environmental damage whilst maximizing economic and social benefits. Using the framework for sustainable mechanization will not only accomplish sustainable goals in identifying the optimum agricultural mechanization level, but it will also allow researchers and implementers in the agricultural sector to examine the outcome of various scenarios under different constraints. This framework can be used to find the optimal model for mechanization of all stages of tillage, planting, harvesting, and post-harvest in diverse geographical areas.
Image Processing
A. Mesri; F. Rahimi-Ajdadi; I. Bagheri
Abstract
IntroductionRice is the fourth most consumed grain worldwide. In recent years, monitoring the area under rice cultivation; as a strategic crop in Gilan province has become more important because of the uncontrolled migration of residents of the southern provinces to it. Remote sensing is one of the practical ...
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IntroductionRice is the fourth most consumed grain worldwide. In recent years, monitoring the area under rice cultivation; as a strategic crop in Gilan province has become more important because of the uncontrolled migration of residents of the southern provinces to it. Remote sensing is one of the practical tools to study the trend of changes in the area under cultivation of agricultural and horticultural products on a large scale and in a short time. This technique can help policymakers to make true and timely decisions. The aim of this study is to estimate the area under rice cultivation in Kiashahr county of Gilan province.Materials and MethodsThe images of the TM sensor of Landsat 5 satellite and the OLI sensor of Landsat 8 satellite were used to prepare land use maps. First, geometric and atmospheric corrections were made to the images. Then, supervised classification using the maximum likelihood algorithm was used to prepare land use maps for each year. Seven main classes/land covers, based on the available data of the area were determined: rice-land, semi-dense forest, sparse forest, built-up area (towns and other urbanized areas), waterbody, sandy area and other areas. Then, the area of each land use was calculated by GIS, and their changes were compared.Results and DiscussionOverall accuracy and kappa coefficient of classification were 98.45% and 0.98 for 2000, 97.59% and 0.97 for 2010, and 98.72% and 0.98 for 2020, respectively. According to the results, rice land area decreased by 4.42% from 2000 to 2010. It also had a decrease of 2.64% between 2010 and 2020. In total, rice lands decreased by 6.94% between 2000 and 2020, so its area has decreased to 10311.69 hectares. This downward trend can be due to the conversion of rice land to the built-up area. The area of semi-dense forest decreased by 47.48% between 2000 and 2010, but its downward trend decreased to 26.36% between 2010 and 2020. In total, semi-dense forest area decreases by 61.32%, equal to 682.25 hectares over a period of 20 years. This is due to the uncontrolled cutting of trees and the change of land use from semi-dense forests to sparse forests and built-up areas. Also, during this period, built-up areas and sparse forests have grown by 67.94% and 18.73%, respectively. But, semi-dense forests, water bodies and sandy areas have decreased by 61.32%, 4.91% and 61.48%, respectively.ConclusionThe reduction rate in the area of rice land and semi-dense forest classes between 2010 and 2020 was lower than the ten-year period before, which can be attributed to the adoption of restrictive laws and more inspections by relevant organizations. However, the downward trends in these land uses have continued over the past decade. Meanwhile, the increase of 67.94% of built-up lands indicates that the lost lands in the forest and rice land classes have been converted into the built-up area. The rate of land-use change in the built-up class has the highest rate among the studied classes. This result indicates the need for serious attention to land-use change in the rural area more than before. Another point is that there was a growth in sparse forests between 2000 and 2010, and then a reverse trend was observed between 2010 and 2020, which shows that in a period of 10 years, deforestation has taken place, and in 10 years later, the lands from these destructions have been converted to the built-up area. As a result, serious attention to natural resource organizations is necessary. It is considered that there was a deliberate destruction of forests over time with the aim of personal profit.
R. Tabatabaei koloor; Gh. Kiani
Abstract
In recent years using rototillers in orchards and small fields especially in northern areas of Iran has been increased. In this study, a multi-function rototiller was developed and its performance was analyzed and evaluated in the field conditions. The specifications of this machine were determined according ...
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In recent years using rototillers in orchards and small fields especially in northern areas of Iran has been increased. In this study, a multi-function rototiller was developed and its performance was analyzed and evaluated in the field conditions. The specifications of this machine were determined according to the standard and operational situation. The calculations were performed for determining the rotor speed at different gears and then power transmission system was designed. Theoretical analysis was conducted to investigate the machine forward speed and blade rotational speed on the quality of rototilling operation. Results indicated that the forward speed and blade rotational speed affected the thickness of soil cut layer and soil crushing rate. Field tests were performed to determine the thickness of soil cut layer and soil crushing rate for orchard and paddy field conditions. In addition, some physical properties of soil such as composition, moisture content, weeding height, and DENSITY at 15 cm depth were measured. Data analysis was performed by Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with factorial test 3×3 at three replications. Duncan test presented the best combinations of forward speed and blade rotational speed for thickness of soil cut layer were 0.4 ms-1 and 50 rpm, respectively. Also, the best combinations of these two factors for soil crushing rate lower than 40 mm were 0.2 ms-1 and 110 rpm, between 40-80 mm; 0.3 ms-1 and 50 rpm and higher than 80 mm; 0.4 ms-1 and 50 rpm, respectively.
S. Firouzi; M. N. Safarzad vishgaei; M. R. Alizadeh
Abstract
In this research, field performance of four weeding methods for peanut crop was investigated in Kiashahr located at Guilan province. The weeding methods were included weeding by two types of motorized weeders (power tiller operated cultivator and power tiller operated rotovator at three forward speeds ...
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In this research, field performance of four weeding methods for peanut crop was investigated in Kiashahr located at Guilan province. The weeding methods were included weeding by two types of motorized weeders (power tiller operated cultivator and power tiller operated rotovator at three forward speeds of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 km/h), weeding by hand-driven wheeled cultivator and hand weeding by trench hoe. A randomized complete block design with three replications was used for the experiment. Weeding index, crop yield, field capacity, energy consumption and the economical index of benefit-cost ratio were measured and determined. Results showed that the highest weeding efficiencies of 98.61 and 97.37% were obtained in hand weeding for the first and second weeding stages, respectively. In all the mechanical treatments, the weeding efficiency of the second stage was greater than that of the first stage. The highest value of field capacity in the first stage (0.1263 km/h) and second stage (0.1287 ha/h) was recorded for power tiller operated rotovator at travel speed of 2.0 km/h. with amount of field efficiency was achieved in weeding with tiller rotovator at forward speed of 2 km/h (0.1263 and 0.1287 ha/h for first and second stages of weeding operation respectively). Among the methods, the lowest value of energy consumption with the average of 307.8 Mj/ha was registered for hand-driven wheeled cultivator. Results also indicated that power tiller operated rotovator at forward speed of 1.0 km/h had the highest benefit-cost ratio of 2.06 compared to other treatments. Thus, weeding by power tiller operated rotovator at forward speed of 1.0 km/h is advisable for peanut cultivation in the region.
D. Momeni; M. H. Rahmati
Abstract
Temperature and humidity are two important parameters affecting the quality and quantity of greenhouse products so two double greenhouses were manufactured in 3.5, 40 and 11 m in height, length and width respectively in agricultural research center of jiroft and kahnooj to study these effects. Both of ...
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Temperature and humidity are two important parameters affecting the quality and quantity of greenhouse products so two double greenhouses were manufactured in 3.5, 40 and 11 m in height, length and width respectively in agricultural research center of jiroft and kahnooj to study these effects. Both of greenhouses are similar in materials, final height, gutter height, covering and field operation but in one of them one heating system, two ventilation fans and one wooden pad were assembled and temperature and humidity besides yield were registered in both of them. The results showed that temperature changing trend inside and outside of the unheated greenhouse were in same phase and this isn't suitable in cold night so the greenhouse with heating system had more yield and picking cucumber fruit numbers than another. Therefore it is necessary to be heated by artificial systems. Because of rapid relative humidity changing in outside of greenhouse in the end of the season, the efficiency of fan and pads cooling system is so low then using of evaporating cooling systems such as fans and pad wasn't proposed and recommend to optimize the temperature by ventilation and shading the greenhouse and in hot days production will be cut.
K. Gerami; M. Safari
Abstract
This experiment was conducted to study the effect of nozzle types and the time of herbicide incorporation in soil on weed control, using split plot design by randomized block design. The main plots were soil and herbicide mixing time and the subplots were nozzle types with three replications. This study ...
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This experiment was conducted to study the effect of nozzle types and the time of herbicide incorporation in soil on weed control, using split plot design by randomized block design. The main plots were soil and herbicide mixing time and the subplots were nozzle types with three replications. This study was performed in Karaj station of Seed and Plant Improvement Institute, located 25 km west of Tehran, in 2008. Treatments were including: T-Jet standard nozzle, Flood-Jet nozzle and Air induction nozzle as well as mixing with the soil immediately, three, six and nine hours after spraying. The parameters were measured includes: the number of weeds before spraying, 15 days and 30 days after spraying; dry weed at two stages of 15 and 30 days after the spraying; and yield of corn. The results revealed that the spraying quality coefficient was greater for T-jet nozzle compared to the other types. However Flood-jet nozzle had a wide range of corn weeds control in comparison to other treatments. Regardless of the nozzle type, the immediate incorporation of herbicide in soil after spraying significantly increased the yield. The time of herbicide incorporation in soil and poison intermixture with soil, from zero to 4.5 hours after spraying was superior to the other times. This was mainly due to different weeds reactions to the times of herbicide incorporation in soil after spraying, and also treatments effect on yield and weed dry weight. Combined data analysis showed that treatment combination of T-Jet nozzle (with time of herbicide incorporation in soil immediately and three hours after spraying), Flood-jet nozzle (with time of herbicide incorporation in soil immediately after spraying) and air induction nozzle (with time of herbicide incorporation in soil immediately, three and six hours after spraying) produced the highest yield than the other treatment combinations.
S. Aliasgarian Najafabadi; H. R. Ghasemzadeh; M. Moghaddam
Abstract
In the present research, susceptibility of two strawberry cultivars (Selva and Gavita) to bruising was studied. Individual fruits were subjected to impact and compressive forces. Impact forces were applied through dropping the fruits from predetermined heights as well as pendulum. Bruising volume was ...
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In the present research, susceptibility of two strawberry cultivars (Selva and Gavita) to bruising was studied. Individual fruits were subjected to impact and compressive forces. Impact forces were applied through dropping the fruits from predetermined heights as well as pendulum. Bruising volume was considered as damage index. In both methods bruising severity was increased as a function of impact energy. Dropped fruits were showed higher bruising volume than those of fruits impacted by pendulum for similar energy levels. Increasing energy level by a factor of four (from 0.022 to 0.082 J) caused the bruise volume to increase by a factor of three (from 46 to 134.5 mm3). Increasing drop height from 18 cm (0.026 J) to 54 cm (0.079 J) caused the bruise volume to increase up to 35%. Bruise severity due to compression force was higher than those of obtained from other tests. Doubling the loading time from 2 to 4 seconds showed no significant difference in bruise volume. Although Gavita variety had greater sensitivity to bruising than Selva variety, the effect of variety was significant only in impact test with pendulum tester.
D. Mohammad Zamani; A. Taghavi; M. Gholami Par-Shokohi; J. Massah
Abstract
In this paper the design, implementation, and evaluation of an experimental-scale potato yield monitoring system is presented. The main objective of this research was to develop a method for accurate mapping of potato yield. At the first stage an instantaneous yield monitoring system was mounted on a ...
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In this paper the design, implementation, and evaluation of an experimental-scale potato yield monitoring system is presented. The main objective of this research was to develop a method for accurate mapping of potato yield. At the first stage an instantaneous yield monitoring system was mounted on a potato harvesting machine. This system consisted of a weighing tray, two load cells, a shaft rpm encoder, a PLC controller and a mobile computer. The PLC controller, which was able to communicate with the mobile computing unit through the control applications developed in Visual Basic and Win-Proladder, was capable of encoding the load cells and other sensors and making decisions by analyzing the obtained records. Laboratory tests were conducted on a potato harvesting machine to evaluate the performance of the system. The independent variables were: forward speed, tray angle, and the thickness of shock absorber plate. To analyze and compare the results of the laboratory data, Duncan's test with confidence level of 95% was used. In order to investigate the interactions of various factors the factorial experiment with completely randomized design was used. In examining the interactions of tray angle, forward speed and performance-related shock absorber on the system performance, the highest performance (with 2.81% error) only was found to be at the tray angel of 37 degrees, forward speed of 2 km h-1 and without shock absorber.
K. Afsahi; A. Akram; R. Alimardani; M. Azizi
Abstract
For improvement or change in a plowing system, it is crucial that all important parameters to be taken in account. Recommendation of a tillage system should receive supports from research data as well as from skilled farmers in order to find a resolution to problems of that system. In this study, strengths, ...
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For improvement or change in a plowing system, it is crucial that all important parameters to be taken in account. Recommendation of a tillage system should receive supports from research data as well as from skilled farmers in order to find a resolution to problems of that system. In this study, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of different tillage systems for wheat cultivation in the Khodabandeh region (Zanjan province, Iran) were identified and ranked using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Based on the viewpoints of skilled farmers, the main threats in tillage systems, which include small farm lands in the region, lack of qualitative research on new tillage systems and lack of government support, affected the system selection (32 percent), relative strengths(26 percent), opportunities (22 percent), and weakness(20 percent). Because of these threats, farmers keep using conventional tillage method (with the value of 47 percent) in spite of their awareness about the benefits of conservation tillage and no-tillage methods. In this situation, the recommended measures are; making new policies for the land integration, performing qualitative research specially on new machinery, clarifying the government's policies on exporting and importing agricultural products and on the amount of guaranteed prices of products before starting the growing season. By these activities the threats can be replaced by opportunities and strengths.
H. Nematpour Malek Abad; M. J. Sheikhdavoodi; I. Hazbavi; A. Marzban
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to model and optimize the offline refinement operations of sugarcane harvester hydraulic oil using RSM. For this purpose, the effects of independent variables of operating hours (250, 500 and 750 hours), Twin Dip Filter Mesh (7, 9 and 11 microns) and hydraulic oil refining ...
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The purpose of this study was to model and optimize the offline refinement operations of sugarcane harvester hydraulic oil using RSM. For this purpose, the effects of independent variables of operating hours (250, 500 and 750 hours), Twin Dip Filter Mesh (7, 9 and 11 microns) and hydraulic oil refining times (0, 1 and 2) on variables of water contamination, uncleanness level (NAS), silicon (Si), viscosity (Vis) and oil acid number (TAN) were evaluated. The results indicated that all models were suitable for water contamination, uncleanness level (NAS), silicon (Si), viscosity (Vis) and oil acid number (TAN) for describing experimental data. In addition, the desirability function showed that the optimum conditions for the offline refinement operations of the hydraulic oil of the sugar cane harvester included 728.61 operating hours, the 7-micron filter mesh, and the two refining times of the oil. Under this condition, the amount of water contamination, the uncleanness level (particles 5 to 15 micrometers), Vis, Si, and TAN were equal to 187.63 ppm, 234000, 5.91 ppm, 66.34 centistokes and 0.65 (mg KOH g-1), respectively.
Image Processing
A. R. Abdollahnejad Barough; M. Adelinia; M. Mohamadi
Abstract
Introduction: Pistachio nut is one of the most important agricultural products of Iran and it is priced due to the quality and type. One of the significant factors of pistachio cost is its type in terms of shell. Filled split pistachio nut has the most quality and is utilized as nuts, while the closed ...
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Introduction: Pistachio nut is one of the most important agricultural products of Iran and it is priced due to the quality and type. One of the significant factors of pistachio cost is its type in terms of shell. Filled split pistachio nut has the most quality and is utilized as nuts, while the closed shell type has lower cost, at the same time is economically efficient in food industry such as confectionery. Now, pistachio sorting is performed usually by human and sometimes using electromechanical apparatuses. Classification of pistachio by human is time consuming and is done with an unacceptable accuracy, on the other hand, electromechanical and electro optical apparatuses damages pistachio because the mechanism used in them while separating. So, the need to develop automated systems that could be implemented by intelligent ways is evident to increase the speed and accuracy of classification.Materials and Methods: In this study, 300 samples of pistachios contains 100 Filled split, 100 Filled non-split and 100 split blank nuts ones are used. The training set consisted of 60 samples of each type of opened nuts, closed and empty opened shell nuts a total of 180 samples and the evaluation set consisted of 40 samples of each type of opened shell, closed shell and empty opened shell nuts a total of 120 samples. The principle of this study is implemented in two steps: 1) sample imaging and image processing to extract features 2) fuzzy network design based on the characteristics of data and training.To select useful features from the hypothesis, C4.5 decision tree is used. C4.5 algorithm makes a greedy top to bottom search on the hypothesis, and is made by the question what feature must be at the root of the tree. By the help of statistical methods, extracted features from the images were prioritized and the most appropriate features for classification of training set were selected. The algorithm chooses the best features as their number is minimum. Finally, a total amount of the second moment (m2) and matrix vectors of image were selected as features. Features and rules produced from decision tree fed into an Adaptable Neuro-fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). ANFIS provides a neural network based on Fuzzy Inference System (FIS) can produce appropriate output corresponding input patterns.Results and Discussion: The proposed model was trained and tested inside ANFIS Editor of the MATLAB software. 300 images, including closed shell, pithy and empty pistachio were selected for training and testing. This network uses 200 data related to these two features and were trained over 200 courses, the accuracy of the result was 95.8%. 100 image have been used to test network over 40 courses with accuracy 97%. The time for the training and testing steps are 0.73 and 0.31 seconds, respectively, and the time to choose the features and rules was 2.1 seconds.Conclusions: In this study, a model was introduced to sort non- split nuts, blank nuts and filled nuts pistachios. Evaluation of training and testing, shows that the model has the ability to classify different types of nuts with high precision. In the previously proposed methods, merely non-split and split pistachio nuts were sorted and being filled or blank nuts is unrecognizable. Nevertheless, accuracy of the mentioned method is 95.56 percent. As well as, other method sorted non-split and split pistachio nuts with an accuracy of 98% and 85% respectively for training and testing steps. The model proposed in this study is better than the other methods and it is encouraging for the improvement and development of the model.
